定冠詞限定名詞時主要表示特指，針對TOEFL應(yīng)注意以下幾點(diǎn)：
(1) the和可數(shù)名詞單數(shù)連用，表示一類人或物，如：
the fern(蕨類), the wallflower
(2) 序數(shù)詞之前必須用the，如：
the first woman, the nineteenth century
但前面有物主代詞時除外，如 my first baby
(3) 形容詞級之前必須用the(有物主代詞時除外)，如：
the largest city, the most advanced technology
(4) of連接的名詞前多用the, 如：
the development of the watch,
(5) 世界上獨(dú)一無二的東西前應(yīng)加the, 如：
the globe(地球)，the equator(赤道), the moon, the sun
在下列情況下，一般不用the：
(1) 表示人名、地名、國家名等專有名詞前, 一般不加，如：
Dennis Chavez(人名)，Alaska(地名)，English(英語), February(二月),
America(美
國)
但是在表示海洋、海峽、江、河、山脈、群島等專有名詞時要加上the
the Great Lakes(美國五大湖)， the Changjiang River(長江)
(2) 無特指的不可數(shù)名詞前，如：
algebra(代數(shù)學(xué)), advertising， accounting（會計(jì)學(xué)）
(3) 表示類別的復(fù)數(shù)名詞前，如：
Historians believe that…, Amphibians(兩棲動物) hatch from…
(4) 一些固定詞組中，如：
in history, in nature, at work, at home , go to school, go to bed, in
bed
乘車的詞組：
by train(乘火車), by car (乘汽車), by bicycle(騎腳踏車),
by bus (乘公共汽車),
by land(由陸路), by sea (由海路), by water (由水路) , by air
(通過航空)
on foot (步行)， by plane(乘飛機(jī))， by ship (乘船)，
打球的詞組：
play tennis, play baseball, play basketball
注意：表示職位的詞之前的冠詞有無均可, 如：He was elected (the)
chairman of t
he committee.
不可數(shù)名詞的限定詞和不可數(shù)名詞原形連用, 下面這些限定詞后面一定跟不可數(shù)名
詞：
much, a large amount of, a great deal of, a wealth of(大量的、豐富的)
little /a little /less /least, a piece /sheet /slice /bar of, 屬不可數(shù)名詞專用
另外一些詞(詞組)如such, some /any (of), most (of), a lot of, lots of,
there st of, plenty of等既可接可數(shù)名詞又可接不可數(shù)名詞。
有些形容詞本身就具有"比….年長"、" 比…..優(yōu)越"等含義，因此也就沒有比
較級和級。比如： inferior, superior, senior, anterior。這些形容詞往往和
to連用，而不和than連用。
有些形容詞本身就具備"最、極"的含義，所以就沒有級和比較級。如：
absolute(絕對的), unique(獨(dú)一無二的), infinite(無限的), round(圓的), right(對 的), correct(正確的), wrong(錯誤的), perfect(完美的)，這類形容詞往往被稱為絕對形容詞對于most來講，除了構(gòu)成某些詞級外，most的用法有幾點(diǎn)需要注意，經(jīng)常成為改錯題的考點(diǎn)：
1． 當(dāng)most表示大多數(shù)時，之前不加the, 并且有兩種形式來表示大多數(shù)，分別為： most + 名詞，如：most people, most Indian tribes； most + of + 限定詞 + 名詞或代詞，如：most of his paintings，most of us, most of the modern artists
2. most有時意思等同于very, 此時most之前用不定冠詞，如：
a most lovely girl, a most impressive proposal
例題：
(1) The most substances expand in volume when they are heated.
A B C D
答案：A
應(yīng)改為：Most
解釋：most只有在表示形容詞級作定語時需加定冠詞，此句表示"大多數(shù)"，
沒必要加the.
幾點(diǎn)參考規(guī)則：
1. 多數(shù)副詞放在修飾的動詞之后，若動詞有賓語則放在賓語之后，如：
She sings very well.
I met your uncle(動詞的賓語) just now.
I met just now your uncle (錯)
2. 副詞修飾形容詞、介詞短語、副詞時常放在被修飾成分之前，如：
These two are only slightly different.
right after this, very smoothly
當(dāng)然，副詞enough是一個例外，要放在修飾成分的后面，如：
I am not good enough to do this job. (對)
I am not enough good to do this job. (錯)
3. 表示頻率的副詞常放在實(shí)意動詞之前，be動詞之后，如：
He often/ always/ rarely/seldom/never play(實(shí)意動詞) tennis.
He is always here at 8'clock. (be動詞之后)
4. 部分副詞的位置沒有一定的規(guī)定，原則上接近被修飾詞即可，如：
only, even, still, perhaps, etc.
第四節(jié) 容易混淆的詞
hard (努力，副詞) －h(huán)ardly （幾乎不，副詞）
close （接近，形容詞） －closely（接近，副詞）
near （接近，形容詞） －nearly （幾乎，副詞）， nearby (adj.鄰近的)
most （大多數(shù)的，形容詞） －mostly（主要地，大部分 副詞）
late （遲、晚，形容詞） －lately （最近，副詞），later(adv .稍后的)
high (高的，形容詞) －h(huán)ighly (adv. 非常，大大的)
另外： friendly（友好的）， lovely(可愛的、有趣的)，盡管詞尾有l(wèi)y, 但是都是形容詞作主語：不定式短語可作主語 如：To see is to believe (百聞不如一見)
To work hard should be your major concern.
注意：由于英文不習(xí)慣句子主語過長，不定式主語常被形式主語it所代替(詳見第
十七章)
例如上面第二句可以變?yōu)椋?It should be your major concern to work hard.
又如： It is very nice of you to help me
不定式常接在名詞之后作定語，如：
something to read, nothing to do, anything to declare, a lot to complain of, the right person to talk to, etc.
由上述例子不難看出不定式和被修飾詞間有動賓關(guān)系，因此不及物動詞之后必須加上相
搭配的介詞（例如上面的complain + of, talk +to）不定式定語還可表示將來的含義，如：in the years to follow, the meeting to be held in June 獨(dú)立主格的主語和句子主語不一致
如：(With) His mouth filled with water, he couldn't utter a word. (獨(dú)立主格)
對于分詞來講其邏輯主語必須和句子的主語保持一致:
Filling his mouth with water, he couldn't utter a word.
在TOEFL考試中，經(jīng)?；煜瓷泶~的寫法，結(jié)尾的-self和-selves經(jīng)常故意寫錯
反身代詞的用法
可以用來做賓語： He hurt himself when he fell.
可以用來做表語： He is not quite himself today. (他今天有些不舒服)
反身代詞經(jīng)常放在名詞或者代名詞的后面來進(jìn)行強(qiáng)調(diào), 表示"親自"的意思
I myself do it.
I do it myself.
They made the research themselves.
但是不能夠說：Himself does it. 應(yīng)改為： He does it.
This is himself's book.. 應(yīng)改為：This is his own book..
牢記make possible的三種形式：
1. make+名詞+possible；
His financial aid makes this trip possible.
2. make+possible+名詞（名詞短語較長時）
His financial aid makes possible the poor Chinese student's entering of the world famous university.
3. make it possible (for sb.)to do (見形式賓語部分)
The father's hard labor makes it possible for the son to receive better education.
定語從句可分為限定性和非限定性兩種，其主要區(qū)別為：
1. 非限定性定語從句中，引導(dǎo)詞和先行詞之間需用逗號隔開。
2. 非限定性定語從句中，引導(dǎo)詞一般不用that，
在修飾人時用who, whom, whose
He had three children, all of whom had graduated from college.
在修飾物時用 which
部分狀語從句可以省略，在填空題中時有出現(xiàn)
如：Although defeated, he did not lose heart. (從句中省略了he was)
If inFORMed timely, I wouldn't have missed the meeting. (從句中省略了I were)
注意: 當(dāng)現(xiàn)在完成時的時間狀語是for + 一段時間(已經(jīng)有…時間了), 和since + 一個時間點(diǎn)(自從…以來)的時候, 句中的謂語不能是非延續(xù)性動詞(暫短性動詞), 如不能說:
I have borrowed the book for ten days. (錯誤: borrow這個動作是發(fā)生在圖書出納臺上的一次性動作, 不能延續(xù), 因此不能和for引導(dǎo)的時間狀語連用)
應(yīng)改為: I have kept the book for ten days.
這樣的暫短性動詞還有: buy/sell, break, die, graduate, drop等
倒裝
倒裝句就是將正常的陳述語序加以變化，主要作用是強(qiáng)調(diào)被提前的部分
倒裝句可分為全部倒裝和部分倒裝兩種：
一、全部倒裝
謂語動詞提前至主語之前為全部倒裝，如：
Out came his guest.
On the hill stood a little cottage that contained heaps of hay.
There lived an elderly lady whose husband died long ago.
二、部分倒裝
助動詞或情態(tài)動詞提至主語之前，謂語動詞位置不變，即為部分倒裝，如：
Neither could he see through your plan.
So little did I know about him that I was easily taken in by his words.
Doesn't her invitation appeal to you?
第一節(jié) 否定詞提前倒裝
否定詞用于句首時，句子應(yīng)進(jìn)行部分倒裝
否定詞常用的有：
Not only…(but also), Not until(直到…..才),
No sooner….(than)(一…..就) Never/ Rarely/Seldom
Hardly/Scarcely… (when) Few/Little
Neither/Nor (也不) Nwhere
At no time Under no circumstances(決不)
On no account (決不) In no way
其中not only, no sooner, hardly, scarcely 分別和but (also), than, when搭配使用，需注意：后一組詞之后的部分不進(jìn)行倒裝，只有否定詞之后的部分倒裝
如：Hardly had I arrived home when it began to rain.
Not only was he able to enter the final round of the contest, but he came out first as well.
No sooner had I got any chance to speak than the clerk slammed the door in my face.
Seldom does he travel about.
Under no circumstances should you betray your own country.
此類倒裝句一般出現(xiàn)在填空題中，需填入的是倒裝部分，只要在句首見到上述的詞，就應(yīng)條件反射的想到用倒裝句
第二節(jié) 介詞、分詞詞組提前倒裝
當(dāng)句子沒有賓語，且主語偏長時，往往將句中作狀語的介詞短語或作表語的形容詞
短語
或作表語的分詞短語提至句首，引起主謂的全部倒裝
如：In the middle of the river floated the cluster of plants that she had cast.
Characteristic of an anarchist was her strong opposition to the government, which she had blamed for all the social injustices.
Lying on the grassland is a pretty girl in her early twenties.
第三節(jié) 副詞提前倒裝
副詞提至句首引起倒裝，可分以下幾種情況：
1. only + 副詞(when, before, if, after等)
或only+介詞狀語(由in, under, by, on, after等引導(dǎo))提前，必須部分倒裝
如：Only then did he realize how stupid he had been.
Only after entering the store did Arthur realize that there was danger.
Only in the library can she concentrate on her study.
2. often, such, so等副詞提前，部分倒裝
如: So diligently did he work that he got hight scores on the final exam.
=He worked so diligently that he got hight scores on the final exam.
Such was his wish that the world would stay away from war forever.
Often did we go on a holiday in hot summer.
注意，so的另一種倒裝是表示"也…"
California relies heavily on income from crops, and so does Florida.
加利福尼亞過多的依賴于來自農(nóng)作物的收入，佛羅里達(dá)也是這樣
同理，體會一下neither, nor的倒裝
He can't dance, neither/nor can I.= I can't, either.
他不會跳舞，我也不會。
3. in, out, down, up, away, off, here, there, over等副詞提前，全部倒裝
如：Off got the staggering gentlemen.
Here are the photos I took at the seaside.
第四節(jié) 疑問倒裝
疑問句需部分倒裝語序，由于經(jīng)常用到不會成為考試的難點(diǎn)。
如：What part did he play in Hamlet?
Do you prefer tea or coffee?
by可視為被動語態(tài)的標(biāo)志詞，by之后的名詞短語是句中動作的施動者；在題干中若見到by+名詞的結(jié)構(gòu)要優(yōu)先考慮用被動式
如: The wall is painted by Tom.
The book was written by Mark Twain.
注意1：by之后如果接的是動名詞，則表示方式、手段，不能視為被動式的標(biāo)志，且此時謂語應(yīng)用主動式， 如：He passed the exam by cheating.
注意2：對于know來講，一般用be known to 而不用be know by 強(qiáng)調(diào)句中it作形式主語可以替代任何被強(qiáng)調(diào)的部分
基本模式：It + be + 強(qiáng)調(diào)對象 + who/ whom/that + 句子其余部分
如：It was only you who cared for me. (強(qiáng)調(diào)主語)
It is his sister whom /that I have fallen in love with. (強(qiáng)調(diào)賓語)
It was under the tree that she found her missing purse. (強(qiáng)調(diào)地點(diǎn)狀語)
It was last week that I attended an art exhibit for the first time. (強(qiáng)調(diào)時間狀語)
It was not until he broke my favorite vase that I flew into rages. (強(qiáng)調(diào)狀語從句)
注意：強(qiáng)調(diào)的對象是人時，可用who, whom或that, 其余情況一律用that; 當(dāng)強(qiáng)調(diào)對象在從句中做主語時用who/that, 當(dāng)強(qiáng)調(diào)對象在從句中做賓語時用whom/that.
虛擬語氣
此章內(nèi)容在TOEFL考點(diǎn)中處于相對次要地位，但在英文中是比較活躍的用法，必須對其有所了解, 這樣對讀題非常有幫助
虛擬語氣是英文中一特殊的語言現(xiàn)象，主要用于表達(dá)與事實(shí)相反的陳述，常表達(dá)強(qiáng)烈愿
望、遺憾、感慨、后悔、責(zé)備、規(guī)勸等語義，可大致分為三類
一、對現(xiàn)在事實(shí)的虛擬
基本形式：If + were /did等過去式…, …would /could /should /might + do
例如：If I were a bird, I would fly to the moon.
(事實(shí)上，I'm not a bird, so I will not fly to the moon.)
If she knew who you are, she would go out of joy.
(事實(shí)上，She doesn't know, so she still feels joyous.)
二、對過去事實(shí)的虛擬
基本形式：If + had done…, …would /could / should /might + have done
例如：If she had been warned earlier, she wouldn't have broken the
rules.
(事實(shí)上：She was not warned earlier and she broke the rules.)
If it hadn't rained, the match would have seemed more fascinating.
(事實(shí)上：It rained and the match was less fascinating.)
此種虛擬可進(jìn)行倒裝，如：
Had the letter been sent out, it would have ruined our friendship.
= If the letter had been sent out, it would have ruined our friendship.
三、對將來事實(shí)的虛擬
基本形式：If + should do…, …would /could /should /might + do; 意思類似漢語中的"萬一"
例如：If he should forget the date, I might teach him a good lesson.
(事實(shí)上：他不大可能忘記那個日期)
If it should snow this afternoon, we could make a snowman.
(事實(shí)上不大可能會下雪)
此種虛擬可倒裝，如：
Should my car fail, I would have to return home on foot.
= If my car should fail, I would have to return home on foot.
注意1：部分動詞的賓語從句中需用虛擬語氣，形式為should do, 其中should常被省略。
此類動詞有：insist, demand, suggest, propose, order, require, decide, ask, request等.
例句： We all insist that we (should) not rest until we finish the work.
The professor suggests that the students (should) collect enough materials before they work on this project.
上面的動詞如果以名詞形式出現(xiàn)時，后面的that從句仍然要采用虛擬語氣
He gives me the suggestion that I (should) eat breakfast every morning.
注意2：在一些慣用語之后經(jīng)常需要用虛擬，來表示與事實(shí)相反或者難以實(shí)現(xiàn)的事情
這類習(xí)語有： as if , as though, but for, otherwise, without, wish, if only等
例句： But for your help, I would not have arrived here in time.
(如果沒有你的幫助，我就不能準(zhǔn)時到達(dá))
Without your help, I would not arrive here in time.
注意3：在下列形容詞引導(dǎo)的that從句中必須要用虛擬語氣(should) do，但是由于should經(jīng)常被省略，所以實(shí)際上用的就是動詞原形。
這類形容詞有: It is important/ necessary/ proper/ imperative/ essential/ advisable等 + that
例句：It is necessary that he (should) realize his situation.
一致原則
一致原則貫穿英語語法，在前面各個章節(jié)中已有涉及，本章作為對前面的補(bǔ)充，集中講 TOEFL題中?？嫉膯栴}
第一節(jié) 主謂一致
主謂一致指的是主語和謂語在數(shù)上要保持一致. 在英語除了時態(tài)的變化外，名詞、 動詞的數(shù)也有差別，這就要求主語（以名詞為代表）和謂語（包括助動詞）在數(shù)上要一致如：
1. 在名詞+of+名詞這種結(jié)構(gòu)中, 前一個名詞是整個短語的中心詞, 當(dāng)該短語作主語時，一般以of之前名詞的數(shù)為依據(jù)確定謂語的數(shù).
one of 之后需接復(fù)數(shù)名詞，但one of+名詞作主語時中心詞是one，故謂語應(yīng)用單數(shù)One of my students wins the game.
2. 由and連接的多個名詞作主語，謂語動詞應(yīng)用復(fù)數(shù)
Career and love are important to me.
Jim, John and Mary are playing football.
但是如果用and連接起來表示單一的概念時，謂語動詞要用單數(shù)
The famous singer and actress, Whitney Huston is coming to the ceremony.
(在這里, singer和actress指得是同一人, 都是Whitney Huston)
3. 不可數(shù)名詞，尤其是抽象名詞(relation, authority, necessity, power, democracy, young等)作主語時要視為單數(shù)，謂語自然也要用單數(shù)
The relation between us is very simple.
4. 單個從句作主語時，謂語用單數(shù)
That she has gone insane is sheer rumor.
When they will come hasn't been made public.
5. 如果主語是單數(shù)，那么即使后面有with/ together with/ along with/accompanied by, no less than, like, but, except, including, besides等引導(dǎo)的短語，謂語動詞仍然要是用單數(shù)
例如：The boy, together with his parents, goes to the cinema today.
No one except the two boys knows how to solve this problem.
6. 由Not A but B, Not only A but also B, either A or B, neither A nor B
引導(dǎo)的主語，謂語通常和最鄰近的主語相一致
Either you or Mary hurts her.
Neither my wife nor I myself am able to persuade my daughter to change her mind.
Not you but he is tired of typing.
Not only the students but also the teacher is going to be blamed.
7.在there be句型、介詞短語、副詞為句首引起的倒裝句中，真正的主語通常在謂語的后面，謂語應(yīng)該和后面的主語在數(shù)方面相一致。
但是在there be 句型中，如果有兩個或者兩個以上的主語，必須和最接近他的那個主語相一致。
There are a lot of books on the table.
There is only one pencil, two books and one cup on the table.
Many a time has he given us good advice.
第二節(jié) 主從句時態(tài)一致
主從句語義相互關(guān)聯(lián)，時態(tài)也需呼應(yīng)，所謂一致并不是說主從句的時態(tài)要一模一樣，而是不能脫節(jié)，一般的原則是不能跨越大的時間范疇，如：主句是一般過去時，從句可能是過去完成時或過去將來時，而不大可能是現(xiàn)在時或?qū)頃r，當(dāng)然具體情況還應(yīng)具體分析，但針對解答TOEFL題而言，掌握上述原則已是綽綽有余
1．通常當(dāng)主句中的時態(tài)是現(xiàn)在時或?qū)頃r態(tài)時，從句中的動詞時態(tài)并不受影響，往往還是根據(jù)從句的意思而定。
I know that he will come tomorrow.
I know that he has finished reading this book.
I know that he went to school yesterday.
2. 當(dāng)主句中的時態(tài)是過去時態(tài),那么從句中的時態(tài)要作一定的變化
I knew that he would come tomorrow. (現(xiàn)在將來時變?yōu)榱诉^去完成時)
I knew that he had finished reading this book. (現(xiàn)在完成時過去完成時)
I was told that he was free today. (現(xiàn)在時態(tài)變?yōu)檫^去時態(tài))
第三節(jié) 代詞與其先行詞一致
在講代詞一章時已提到代詞的作用是替代已出現(xiàn)過的詞，即先行詞，那么代詞和先行詞之間也應(yīng)保持性、數(shù)的一致才能保證替代的忠實(shí)性，不引起誤解
在改錯題中，確定代詞的先行詞是解題的關(guān)鍵，主要是依靠句意來判斷，還需留意下列情況：
1. 反身代詞需和所在主謂結(jié)構(gòu)的主語一致，若不一致應(yīng)改為賓格形式
如：Her mother helped her solve the problem.
此句中helped之后若用herself則指的是her mother, 語義不同
2. 在主從句中，或有分詞狀語的句子中，代詞所代替的對象有可能在其后出現(xiàn)，要準(zhǔn)確識別
如：After she entered the room, Mary flung herself to the bed.
此句中she指代的是主句中的Mary
(1) the和可數(shù)名詞單數(shù)連用，表示一類人或物，如：
the fern(蕨類), the wallflower
(2) 序數(shù)詞之前必須用the，如：
the first woman, the nineteenth century
但前面有物主代詞時除外，如 my first baby
(3) 形容詞級之前必須用the(有物主代詞時除外)，如：
the largest city, the most advanced technology
(4) of連接的名詞前多用the, 如：
the development of the watch,
(5) 世界上獨(dú)一無二的東西前應(yīng)加the, 如：
the globe(地球)，the equator(赤道), the moon, the sun
在下列情況下，一般不用the：
(1) 表示人名、地名、國家名等專有名詞前, 一般不加，如：
Dennis Chavez(人名)，Alaska(地名)，English(英語), February(二月),
America(美
國)
但是在表示海洋、海峽、江、河、山脈、群島等專有名詞時要加上the
the Great Lakes(美國五大湖)， the Changjiang River(長江)
(2) 無特指的不可數(shù)名詞前，如：
algebra(代數(shù)學(xué)), advertising， accounting（會計(jì)學(xué)）
(3) 表示類別的復(fù)數(shù)名詞前，如：
Historians believe that…, Amphibians(兩棲動物) hatch from…
(4) 一些固定詞組中，如：
in history, in nature, at work, at home , go to school, go to bed, in
bed
乘車的詞組：
by train(乘火車), by car (乘汽車), by bicycle(騎腳踏車),
by bus (乘公共汽車),
by land(由陸路), by sea (由海路), by water (由水路) , by air
(通過航空)
on foot (步行)， by plane(乘飛機(jī))， by ship (乘船)，
打球的詞組：
play tennis, play baseball, play basketball
注意：表示職位的詞之前的冠詞有無均可, 如：He was elected (the)
chairman of t
he committee.
不可數(shù)名詞的限定詞和不可數(shù)名詞原形連用, 下面這些限定詞后面一定跟不可數(shù)名
詞：
much, a large amount of, a great deal of, a wealth of(大量的、豐富的)
little /a little /less /least, a piece /sheet /slice /bar of, 屬不可數(shù)名詞專用
另外一些詞(詞組)如such, some /any (of), most (of), a lot of, lots of,
there st of, plenty of等既可接可數(shù)名詞又可接不可數(shù)名詞。
有些形容詞本身就具有"比….年長"、" 比…..優(yōu)越"等含義，因此也就沒有比
較級和級。比如： inferior, superior, senior, anterior。這些形容詞往往和
to連用，而不和than連用。
有些形容詞本身就具備"最、極"的含義，所以就沒有級和比較級。如：
absolute(絕對的), unique(獨(dú)一無二的), infinite(無限的), round(圓的), right(對 的), correct(正確的), wrong(錯誤的), perfect(完美的)，這類形容詞往往被稱為絕對形容詞對于most來講，除了構(gòu)成某些詞級外，most的用法有幾點(diǎn)需要注意，經(jīng)常成為改錯題的考點(diǎn)：
1． 當(dāng)most表示大多數(shù)時，之前不加the, 并且有兩種形式來表示大多數(shù)，分別為： most + 名詞，如：most people, most Indian tribes； most + of + 限定詞 + 名詞或代詞，如：most of his paintings，most of us, most of the modern artists
2. most有時意思等同于very, 此時most之前用不定冠詞，如：
a most lovely girl, a most impressive proposal
例題：
(1) The most substances expand in volume when they are heated.
A B C D
答案：A
應(yīng)改為：Most
解釋：most只有在表示形容詞級作定語時需加定冠詞，此句表示"大多數(shù)"，
沒必要加the.
幾點(diǎn)參考規(guī)則：
1. 多數(shù)副詞放在修飾的動詞之后，若動詞有賓語則放在賓語之后，如：
She sings very well.
I met your uncle(動詞的賓語) just now.
I met just now your uncle (錯)
2. 副詞修飾形容詞、介詞短語、副詞時常放在被修飾成分之前，如：
These two are only slightly different.
right after this, very smoothly
當(dāng)然，副詞enough是一個例外，要放在修飾成分的后面，如：
I am not good enough to do this job. (對)
I am not enough good to do this job. (錯)
3. 表示頻率的副詞常放在實(shí)意動詞之前，be動詞之后，如：
He often/ always/ rarely/seldom/never play(實(shí)意動詞) tennis.
He is always here at 8'clock. (be動詞之后)
4. 部分副詞的位置沒有一定的規(guī)定，原則上接近被修飾詞即可，如：
only, even, still, perhaps, etc.
第四節(jié) 容易混淆的詞
hard (努力，副詞) －h(huán)ardly （幾乎不，副詞）
close （接近，形容詞） －closely（接近，副詞）
near （接近，形容詞） －nearly （幾乎，副詞）， nearby (adj.鄰近的)
most （大多數(shù)的，形容詞） －mostly（主要地，大部分 副詞）
late （遲、晚，形容詞） －lately （最近，副詞），later(adv .稍后的)
high (高的，形容詞) －h(huán)ighly (adv. 非常，大大的)
另外： friendly（友好的）， lovely(可愛的、有趣的)，盡管詞尾有l(wèi)y, 但是都是形容詞作主語：不定式短語可作主語 如：To see is to believe (百聞不如一見)
To work hard should be your major concern.
注意：由于英文不習(xí)慣句子主語過長，不定式主語常被形式主語it所代替(詳見第
十七章)
例如上面第二句可以變?yōu)椋?It should be your major concern to work hard.
又如： It is very nice of you to help me
不定式常接在名詞之后作定語，如：
something to read, nothing to do, anything to declare, a lot to complain of, the right person to talk to, etc.
由上述例子不難看出不定式和被修飾詞間有動賓關(guān)系，因此不及物動詞之后必須加上相
搭配的介詞（例如上面的complain + of, talk +to）不定式定語還可表示將來的含義，如：in the years to follow, the meeting to be held in June 獨(dú)立主格的主語和句子主語不一致
如：(With) His mouth filled with water, he couldn't utter a word. (獨(dú)立主格)
對于分詞來講其邏輯主語必須和句子的主語保持一致:
Filling his mouth with water, he couldn't utter a word.
在TOEFL考試中，經(jīng)?；煜瓷泶~的寫法，結(jié)尾的-self和-selves經(jīng)常故意寫錯
反身代詞的用法
可以用來做賓語： He hurt himself when he fell.
可以用來做表語： He is not quite himself today. (他今天有些不舒服)
反身代詞經(jīng)常放在名詞或者代名詞的后面來進(jìn)行強(qiáng)調(diào), 表示"親自"的意思
I myself do it.
I do it myself.
They made the research themselves.
但是不能夠說：Himself does it. 應(yīng)改為： He does it.
This is himself's book.. 應(yīng)改為：This is his own book..
牢記make possible的三種形式：
1. make+名詞+possible；
His financial aid makes this trip possible.
2. make+possible+名詞（名詞短語較長時）
His financial aid makes possible the poor Chinese student's entering of the world famous university.
3. make it possible (for sb.)to do (見形式賓語部分)
The father's hard labor makes it possible for the son to receive better education.
定語從句可分為限定性和非限定性兩種，其主要區(qū)別為：
1. 非限定性定語從句中，引導(dǎo)詞和先行詞之間需用逗號隔開。
2. 非限定性定語從句中，引導(dǎo)詞一般不用that，
在修飾人時用who, whom, whose
He had three children, all of whom had graduated from college.
在修飾物時用 which
部分狀語從句可以省略，在填空題中時有出現(xiàn)
如：Although defeated, he did not lose heart. (從句中省略了he was)
If inFORMed timely, I wouldn't have missed the meeting. (從句中省略了I were)
注意: 當(dāng)現(xiàn)在完成時的時間狀語是for + 一段時間(已經(jīng)有…時間了), 和since + 一個時間點(diǎn)(自從…以來)的時候, 句中的謂語不能是非延續(xù)性動詞(暫短性動詞), 如不能說:
I have borrowed the book for ten days. (錯誤: borrow這個動作是發(fā)生在圖書出納臺上的一次性動作, 不能延續(xù), 因此不能和for引導(dǎo)的時間狀語連用)
應(yīng)改為: I have kept the book for ten days.
這樣的暫短性動詞還有: buy/sell, break, die, graduate, drop等
倒裝
倒裝句就是將正常的陳述語序加以變化，主要作用是強(qiáng)調(diào)被提前的部分
倒裝句可分為全部倒裝和部分倒裝兩種：
一、全部倒裝
謂語動詞提前至主語之前為全部倒裝，如：
Out came his guest.
On the hill stood a little cottage that contained heaps of hay.
There lived an elderly lady whose husband died long ago.
二、部分倒裝
助動詞或情態(tài)動詞提至主語之前，謂語動詞位置不變，即為部分倒裝，如：
Neither could he see through your plan.
So little did I know about him that I was easily taken in by his words.
Doesn't her invitation appeal to you?
第一節(jié) 否定詞提前倒裝
否定詞用于句首時，句子應(yīng)進(jìn)行部分倒裝
否定詞常用的有：
Not only…(but also), Not until(直到…..才),
No sooner….(than)(一…..就) Never/ Rarely/Seldom
Hardly/Scarcely… (when) Few/Little
Neither/Nor (也不) Nwhere
At no time Under no circumstances(決不)
On no account (決不) In no way
其中not only, no sooner, hardly, scarcely 分別和but (also), than, when搭配使用，需注意：后一組詞之后的部分不進(jìn)行倒裝，只有否定詞之后的部分倒裝
如：Hardly had I arrived home when it began to rain.
Not only was he able to enter the final round of the contest, but he came out first as well.
No sooner had I got any chance to speak than the clerk slammed the door in my face.
Seldom does he travel about.
Under no circumstances should you betray your own country.
此類倒裝句一般出現(xiàn)在填空題中，需填入的是倒裝部分，只要在句首見到上述的詞，就應(yīng)條件反射的想到用倒裝句
第二節(jié) 介詞、分詞詞組提前倒裝
當(dāng)句子沒有賓語，且主語偏長時，往往將句中作狀語的介詞短語或作表語的形容詞
短語
或作表語的分詞短語提至句首，引起主謂的全部倒裝
如：In the middle of the river floated the cluster of plants that she had cast.
Characteristic of an anarchist was her strong opposition to the government, which she had blamed for all the social injustices.
Lying on the grassland is a pretty girl in her early twenties.
第三節(jié) 副詞提前倒裝
副詞提至句首引起倒裝，可分以下幾種情況：
1. only + 副詞(when, before, if, after等)
或only+介詞狀語(由in, under, by, on, after等引導(dǎo))提前，必須部分倒裝
如：Only then did he realize how stupid he had been.
Only after entering the store did Arthur realize that there was danger.
Only in the library can she concentrate on her study.
2. often, such, so等副詞提前，部分倒裝
如: So diligently did he work that he got hight scores on the final exam.
=He worked so diligently that he got hight scores on the final exam.
Such was his wish that the world would stay away from war forever.
Often did we go on a holiday in hot summer.
注意，so的另一種倒裝是表示"也…"
California relies heavily on income from crops, and so does Florida.
加利福尼亞過多的依賴于來自農(nóng)作物的收入，佛羅里達(dá)也是這樣
同理，體會一下neither, nor的倒裝
He can't dance, neither/nor can I.= I can't, either.
他不會跳舞，我也不會。
3. in, out, down, up, away, off, here, there, over等副詞提前，全部倒裝
如：Off got the staggering gentlemen.
Here are the photos I took at the seaside.
第四節(jié) 疑問倒裝
疑問句需部分倒裝語序，由于經(jīng)常用到不會成為考試的難點(diǎn)。
如：What part did he play in Hamlet?
Do you prefer tea or coffee?
by可視為被動語態(tài)的標(biāo)志詞，by之后的名詞短語是句中動作的施動者；在題干中若見到by+名詞的結(jié)構(gòu)要優(yōu)先考慮用被動式
如: The wall is painted by Tom.
The book was written by Mark Twain.
注意1：by之后如果接的是動名詞，則表示方式、手段，不能視為被動式的標(biāo)志，且此時謂語應(yīng)用主動式， 如：He passed the exam by cheating.
注意2：對于know來講，一般用be known to 而不用be know by 強(qiáng)調(diào)句中it作形式主語可以替代任何被強(qiáng)調(diào)的部分
基本模式：It + be + 強(qiáng)調(diào)對象 + who/ whom/that + 句子其余部分
如：It was only you who cared for me. (強(qiáng)調(diào)主語)
It is his sister whom /that I have fallen in love with. (強(qiáng)調(diào)賓語)
It was under the tree that she found her missing purse. (強(qiáng)調(diào)地點(diǎn)狀語)
It was last week that I attended an art exhibit for the first time. (強(qiáng)調(diào)時間狀語)
It was not until he broke my favorite vase that I flew into rages. (強(qiáng)調(diào)狀語從句)
注意：強(qiáng)調(diào)的對象是人時，可用who, whom或that, 其余情況一律用that; 當(dāng)強(qiáng)調(diào)對象在從句中做主語時用who/that, 當(dāng)強(qiáng)調(diào)對象在從句中做賓語時用whom/that.
虛擬語氣
此章內(nèi)容在TOEFL考點(diǎn)中處于相對次要地位，但在英文中是比較活躍的用法，必須對其有所了解, 這樣對讀題非常有幫助
虛擬語氣是英文中一特殊的語言現(xiàn)象，主要用于表達(dá)與事實(shí)相反的陳述，常表達(dá)強(qiáng)烈愿
望、遺憾、感慨、后悔、責(zé)備、規(guī)勸等語義，可大致分為三類
一、對現(xiàn)在事實(shí)的虛擬
基本形式：If + were /did等過去式…, …would /could /should /might + do
例如：If I were a bird, I would fly to the moon.
(事實(shí)上，I'm not a bird, so I will not fly to the moon.)
If she knew who you are, she would go out of joy.
(事實(shí)上，She doesn't know, so she still feels joyous.)
二、對過去事實(shí)的虛擬
基本形式：If + had done…, …would /could / should /might + have done
例如：If she had been warned earlier, she wouldn't have broken the
rules.
(事實(shí)上：She was not warned earlier and she broke the rules.)
If it hadn't rained, the match would have seemed more fascinating.
(事實(shí)上：It rained and the match was less fascinating.)
此種虛擬可進(jìn)行倒裝，如：
Had the letter been sent out, it would have ruined our friendship.
= If the letter had been sent out, it would have ruined our friendship.
三、對將來事實(shí)的虛擬
基本形式：If + should do…, …would /could /should /might + do; 意思類似漢語中的"萬一"
例如：If he should forget the date, I might teach him a good lesson.
(事實(shí)上：他不大可能忘記那個日期)
If it should snow this afternoon, we could make a snowman.
(事實(shí)上不大可能會下雪)
此種虛擬可倒裝，如：
Should my car fail, I would have to return home on foot.
= If my car should fail, I would have to return home on foot.
注意1：部分動詞的賓語從句中需用虛擬語氣，形式為should do, 其中should常被省略。
此類動詞有：insist, demand, suggest, propose, order, require, decide, ask, request等.
例句： We all insist that we (should) not rest until we finish the work.
The professor suggests that the students (should) collect enough materials before they work on this project.
上面的動詞如果以名詞形式出現(xiàn)時，后面的that從句仍然要采用虛擬語氣
He gives me the suggestion that I (should) eat breakfast every morning.
注意2：在一些慣用語之后經(jīng)常需要用虛擬，來表示與事實(shí)相反或者難以實(shí)現(xiàn)的事情
這類習(xí)語有： as if , as though, but for, otherwise, without, wish, if only等
例句： But for your help, I would not have arrived here in time.
(如果沒有你的幫助，我就不能準(zhǔn)時到達(dá))
Without your help, I would not arrive here in time.
注意3：在下列形容詞引導(dǎo)的that從句中必須要用虛擬語氣(should) do，但是由于should經(jīng)常被省略，所以實(shí)際上用的就是動詞原形。
這類形容詞有: It is important/ necessary/ proper/ imperative/ essential/ advisable等 + that
例句：It is necessary that he (should) realize his situation.
一致原則
一致原則貫穿英語語法，在前面各個章節(jié)中已有涉及，本章作為對前面的補(bǔ)充，集中講 TOEFL題中?？嫉膯栴}
第一節(jié) 主謂一致
主謂一致指的是主語和謂語在數(shù)上要保持一致. 在英語除了時態(tài)的變化外，名詞、 動詞的數(shù)也有差別，這就要求主語（以名詞為代表）和謂語（包括助動詞）在數(shù)上要一致如：
1. 在名詞+of+名詞這種結(jié)構(gòu)中, 前一個名詞是整個短語的中心詞, 當(dāng)該短語作主語時，一般以of之前名詞的數(shù)為依據(jù)確定謂語的數(shù).
one of 之后需接復(fù)數(shù)名詞，但one of+名詞作主語時中心詞是one，故謂語應(yīng)用單數(shù)One of my students wins the game.
2. 由and連接的多個名詞作主語，謂語動詞應(yīng)用復(fù)數(shù)
Career and love are important to me.
Jim, John and Mary are playing football.
但是如果用and連接起來表示單一的概念時，謂語動詞要用單數(shù)
The famous singer and actress, Whitney Huston is coming to the ceremony.
(在這里, singer和actress指得是同一人, 都是Whitney Huston)
3. 不可數(shù)名詞，尤其是抽象名詞(relation, authority, necessity, power, democracy, young等)作主語時要視為單數(shù)，謂語自然也要用單數(shù)
The relation between us is very simple.
4. 單個從句作主語時，謂語用單數(shù)
That she has gone insane is sheer rumor.
When they will come hasn't been made public.
5. 如果主語是單數(shù)，那么即使后面有with/ together with/ along with/accompanied by, no less than, like, but, except, including, besides等引導(dǎo)的短語，謂語動詞仍然要是用單數(shù)
例如：The boy, together with his parents, goes to the cinema today.
No one except the two boys knows how to solve this problem.
6. 由Not A but B, Not only A but also B, either A or B, neither A nor B
引導(dǎo)的主語，謂語通常和最鄰近的主語相一致
Either you or Mary hurts her.
Neither my wife nor I myself am able to persuade my daughter to change her mind.
Not you but he is tired of typing.
Not only the students but also the teacher is going to be blamed.
7.在there be句型、介詞短語、副詞為句首引起的倒裝句中，真正的主語通常在謂語的后面，謂語應(yīng)該和后面的主語在數(shù)方面相一致。
但是在there be 句型中，如果有兩個或者兩個以上的主語，必須和最接近他的那個主語相一致。
There are a lot of books on the table.
There is only one pencil, two books and one cup on the table.
Many a time has he given us good advice.
第二節(jié) 主從句時態(tài)一致
主從句語義相互關(guān)聯(lián)，時態(tài)也需呼應(yīng)，所謂一致并不是說主從句的時態(tài)要一模一樣，而是不能脫節(jié)，一般的原則是不能跨越大的時間范疇，如：主句是一般過去時，從句可能是過去完成時或過去將來時，而不大可能是現(xiàn)在時或?qū)頃r，當(dāng)然具體情況還應(yīng)具體分析，但針對解答TOEFL題而言，掌握上述原則已是綽綽有余
1．通常當(dāng)主句中的時態(tài)是現(xiàn)在時或?qū)頃r態(tài)時，從句中的動詞時態(tài)并不受影響，往往還是根據(jù)從句的意思而定。
I know that he will come tomorrow.
I know that he has finished reading this book.
I know that he went to school yesterday.
2. 當(dāng)主句中的時態(tài)是過去時態(tài),那么從句中的時態(tài)要作一定的變化
I knew that he would come tomorrow. (現(xiàn)在將來時變?yōu)榱诉^去完成時)
I knew that he had finished reading this book. (現(xiàn)在完成時過去完成時)
I was told that he was free today. (現(xiàn)在時態(tài)變?yōu)檫^去時態(tài))
第三節(jié) 代詞與其先行詞一致
在講代詞一章時已提到代詞的作用是替代已出現(xiàn)過的詞，即先行詞，那么代詞和先行詞之間也應(yīng)保持性、數(shù)的一致才能保證替代的忠實(shí)性，不引起誤解
在改錯題中，確定代詞的先行詞是解題的關(guān)鍵，主要是依靠句意來判斷，還需留意下列情況：
1. 反身代詞需和所在主謂結(jié)構(gòu)的主語一致，若不一致應(yīng)改為賓格形式
如：Her mother helped her solve the problem.
此句中helped之后若用herself則指的是her mother, 語義不同
2. 在主從句中，或有分詞狀語的句子中，代詞所代替的對象有可能在其后出現(xiàn)，要準(zhǔn)確識別
如：After she entered the room, Mary flung herself to the bed.
此句中she指代的是主句中的Mary