Part II The How-Tos
Identify the Differences ：Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Differences
了解不同：中西文化差異的六種基本模式
1.Different Communication Styles 不同的交流風格
The way people communicate varies widely between, and even within, cultures. One aspect of communication style is language usage. Across cultures, some words and phrases are used in different ways. For example, even in countries that share the English language, the meaning of "yes" varies from "maybe, I'll consider it" to "definitely so," with many shades in between.
Another major aspect of communication style is the degree of importance given to non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication includes not only facial expressions and gestures; it also involves seating arrangements, personal distance, and sense of time. In addition, different norms regarding the appropriate degree of assertiveness in communicating can add to cultural misunderstandings. For instance, some white Americans typically consider raised voices to be a sign that a fight has begun, while some Asian, African, Jewish and Italian Americans often feel that an increase in volume is a sign of an exciting conversation among friends. Thus, some white Americans may react with greater alarm to a loud discussion than would members of some American ethnic or non-white racial groups.
2.Different Attitudes Toward Conflict 對待沖突的不同看法
Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while others view it as something to be avoided. In the U.S., conflict is not usually desirable; but people often are encouraged to deal directly with conflicts that do arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings customarily are recommended as the way to work through whatever problems exist. In contrast, in many Eastern countries, open conflict is experienced as embarrassing or demeaning; as a rule, differences are best worked out quietly. A written exchange might be the favored means to address the conflict.
3.Different Approaches to Completing Tasks 對待完成任務的不同方法
From culture to culture, there are different ways that people move toward completing tasks. Some reasons include different access to resources, different judgments of the rewards associated with task completion, different notions of time, and varied ideas about how relationship-building and task-oriented work should go together.
When it comes to working together effectively on a task, cultures differ with respect to the importance placed on establishing relationships early on in the collaboration. A case in point, Asian and Hispanic cultures tend to attach more value to developing relationships at the beginning of a shared project and more emphasis on task completion toward the end as compared with Americans. Americans tend to focus immediately on the task at hand, and let relationships develop as they work on the task. This does not mean that people from any one of these cultural backgrounds are more or less committed to accomplishing the task, or value relationships more or less; it means they may pursue them differently.
4.Different Decision-Making Styles 不同的決定風格
The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to culture. For example, in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated -- that is, an official assigns responsibility for a particular matter to a subordinate. In many Southern European and Latin American countries, there is a strong value placed on holding decision-making responsibilities oneself. When decisions are made by groups of people, majority rule is a common approach in the U.S.; in Asia consensus is the preferred mode. Be aware that individuals' expectations about their own roles in shaping a decision may be influenced by their cultural frame of reference.
5.Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure 對待披露/曝光的不同態(tài)度
In some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the reasons behind a conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information. Keep this in mind when you are in a dialogue or when you are working with others. When you are dealing with a conflict, be mindful that people may differ in what they feel comfortable revealing. Questions that may seem natural to you -- What was the conflict about? What was your role in the conflict? What was the sequence of events? -- may seem intrusive to others. The variation among cultures in attitudes toward disclosure is also something to consider before you conclude that you have an accurate reading of the views, experiences, and goals of the people with whom you are working.
Guidelines for Prosperous Entertaining and Presentation of Gifts in Business
商務社交、接送禮物禮儀
Business breakfasts are common, and can start as early as 7:00 a.m.
On weekends, many people partake in "brunch", a combination of lunch and breakfast beginning anywhere from 11 a.m. to 2 p.m. Moreover, business meetings are sometimes held over "brunch."
Business meetings are frequently held over lunch, which begins at 12:00 noon and sometimes lasts until 2:00 p.m. Lunch is usually a lighter meal, since work continues directly afterward. Additionally, an alcoholic beverage such as wine or beer is sometimes ordered.
If you are invited out for a business meal, the host will usually pay.
If you are invited out, but your host does not offer to pay, you should be prepared to pay for your own meal.
When eating out, the cost is sometimes shared with friends or colleagues, a practice often referred to as "getting separate checks", "going Dutch", or "splitting the bill."
If you invite a U.S. counterpart out socially, you must make it clear whether you wish to pay.
The fork is held in the right hand and is used for eating. The knife is used to cut or spread something onto a food item. To use the knife, the fork is switched to the left hand or is laid down; to continue eating, the fork is switched back to the right hand. But, if you prefer to use the “continental” style of dining, in which the knife and fork are never switched, that is acceptable, too.
Unlike some other cultures, it's perfectly acceptable to refuse an offer of food or drink; moreover, in most cases, the host probably won't urge you to eat.
Many foods are eaten with the hands, so you may want to follow the example of your companions.
There are a variety of ways to beckon a server. For example, you can make eye contact and raise your eyebrows, briefly wave to get his or her attention, or mouth the word for what you want such as "water" or "coffee." To call for the check, you can make a writing gesture or mouth the word "check, please."
It is not considered rude to eat while walking down the street.
Business gifts are often presented after the deal is closed. In most situations, gifts are usually unwrapped immediately and shown to all assembled. If you receive a Christmas gift, however, you may be asked to wait until Christmas Day to open it.
In many cases, the best gifts are those that come from your country.
You may not receive a gift in return right away.
During the Christmas season, gifts are exchanged. For your business associates, you can give gifts such as useful items for the office, liquor or wine.
When you visit a home, it is not necessary to take a gift, although it is always appreciated. Flowers, a potted plant, or a bottle of wine can be good gift choices.
Taking someone out for a meal or other entertainment is another popular gift.
Gifts for women such as perfume or clothing are usually inappropriate because they are considered far too personal.
Gifts for children are often a thoughtful and appreciated gesture, but take into account the values of the parents. For example, some parents might object to your giving a toy gun or a violent video game to their child. Acceptable public conduct
適宜的公眾社交禮儀與舉止
Smoking is not as commonplace and is subject to restrictions in most public places. Before smoking, the best policy is to ask if anyone minds, or wait to see if others smoke. Restaurants often have a section where smoking is permitted; many hotels designate rooms as smoking and non-smoking.
A handshake is the customary greeting for both men and women, although you should wait to see if the woman offers her hand.
Apart from greeting close family members or friends, Americans tend to refrain from greetings that involve hugging and other close physical contact. For the most part, they are unreceptive to being touched during conversation and other social situations.
The standard space between you and your conversation partner should be about two feet. Most U.S. executives will be uncomfortable standing at a closer distance.
Direct eye contact conveys that you are sincere, although it should not be too intense. Certain ethnic groups will look away to show respect.
Friends or acquaintances of the same sex generally do not hold hands.
To point, you may use the index finger, although it's impolite to point at another person.
To beckon someone, wave either all the fingers or just the index finger in a scooping motion, with the palm facing up.
To show approval, there are two common gestures: the "O.K." sign, formed by making a circle of the thumb and index finger, and the "thumbs up" sign, formed by making a fist and pointing the thumb upward.
What You Should Know About a Contract
² Why Do I Need A Contract? 為什么需要合同?
You don’t have to be a lawyer to reap the benefits of writing your own contracts. A little common sense goes a long way and a good contract does more that just cover your rear should you end up in court. Written correctly, a contract can demonstrate business professionalism, weed out insincere clients, organize your duties, speed up your pay, help you get insurance, avoid disputes, make mutual obligations clear and keep you out of court.
² What is a Contract? 什么是合同?
A contract is a legally binding agreement. Contracts are either formal (written) or simple (verbal). It may be a bilateral contract, performed by both parties, or unilateral, a promise in exchange for an act or performance of a task or deed. Contracts may be voided, that is, the parties may agree to nullify the contract or it may be voided by a court of law. These are some of the characteristics of a contract.
² Elements of a Good Contract 合同的要素
Every good contract has four essential component parts. They are: offer and acceptance, mutuality and consideration, competent parties, and a legal object.
An offer is communicated verbally or in writing and has definite terms. Mutuality indicates duties or actions are performed by each party. Consideration means that something of value is exchanged. Competent parties speak to the mental and legal capacity of the parties involved in making the contract. A legal object connotes a legal objective and no criminal intent.
Contracts don’t have to be formal: a letter of agreement is a contract too. In fact, a contract can be anything — it can be oral, can be written on a napkin(though not advised), can be a purchase order or a combination of documents exchanged between parties. It has no particular form. Written is better, though, then the terms are less often questioned.
To construct your own contract, specify the issues and conditions that matter. Independent consultants, for example struggle with Internal Revenue Service rules that threaten to reclassify them as employees. In an independent contractors contract state “the contractor is an independent contractor and not an employee.” That will protect the business identity and relieve your client of the fear that they will end up having to pay your health insurance premiums and Social Security taxes.
Identify the Differences ：Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Differences
了解不同：中西文化差異的六種基本模式
1.Different Communication Styles 不同的交流風格
The way people communicate varies widely between, and even within, cultures. One aspect of communication style is language usage. Across cultures, some words and phrases are used in different ways. For example, even in countries that share the English language, the meaning of "yes" varies from "maybe, I'll consider it" to "definitely so," with many shades in between.
Another major aspect of communication style is the degree of importance given to non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication includes not only facial expressions and gestures; it also involves seating arrangements, personal distance, and sense of time. In addition, different norms regarding the appropriate degree of assertiveness in communicating can add to cultural misunderstandings. For instance, some white Americans typically consider raised voices to be a sign that a fight has begun, while some Asian, African, Jewish and Italian Americans often feel that an increase in volume is a sign of an exciting conversation among friends. Thus, some white Americans may react with greater alarm to a loud discussion than would members of some American ethnic or non-white racial groups.
2.Different Attitudes Toward Conflict 對待沖突的不同看法
Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while others view it as something to be avoided. In the U.S., conflict is not usually desirable; but people often are encouraged to deal directly with conflicts that do arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings customarily are recommended as the way to work through whatever problems exist. In contrast, in many Eastern countries, open conflict is experienced as embarrassing or demeaning; as a rule, differences are best worked out quietly. A written exchange might be the favored means to address the conflict.
3.Different Approaches to Completing Tasks 對待完成任務的不同方法
From culture to culture, there are different ways that people move toward completing tasks. Some reasons include different access to resources, different judgments of the rewards associated with task completion, different notions of time, and varied ideas about how relationship-building and task-oriented work should go together.
When it comes to working together effectively on a task, cultures differ with respect to the importance placed on establishing relationships early on in the collaboration. A case in point, Asian and Hispanic cultures tend to attach more value to developing relationships at the beginning of a shared project and more emphasis on task completion toward the end as compared with Americans. Americans tend to focus immediately on the task at hand, and let relationships develop as they work on the task. This does not mean that people from any one of these cultural backgrounds are more or less committed to accomplishing the task, or value relationships more or less; it means they may pursue them differently.
4.Different Decision-Making Styles 不同的決定風格
The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to culture. For example, in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated -- that is, an official assigns responsibility for a particular matter to a subordinate. In many Southern European and Latin American countries, there is a strong value placed on holding decision-making responsibilities oneself. When decisions are made by groups of people, majority rule is a common approach in the U.S.; in Asia consensus is the preferred mode. Be aware that individuals' expectations about their own roles in shaping a decision may be influenced by their cultural frame of reference.
5.Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure 對待披露/曝光的不同態(tài)度
In some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the reasons behind a conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information. Keep this in mind when you are in a dialogue or when you are working with others. When you are dealing with a conflict, be mindful that people may differ in what they feel comfortable revealing. Questions that may seem natural to you -- What was the conflict about? What was your role in the conflict? What was the sequence of events? -- may seem intrusive to others. The variation among cultures in attitudes toward disclosure is also something to consider before you conclude that you have an accurate reading of the views, experiences, and goals of the people with whom you are working.
Guidelines for Prosperous Entertaining and Presentation of Gifts in Business
商務社交、接送禮物禮儀
Business breakfasts are common, and can start as early as 7:00 a.m.
On weekends, many people partake in "brunch", a combination of lunch and breakfast beginning anywhere from 11 a.m. to 2 p.m. Moreover, business meetings are sometimes held over "brunch."
Business meetings are frequently held over lunch, which begins at 12:00 noon and sometimes lasts until 2:00 p.m. Lunch is usually a lighter meal, since work continues directly afterward. Additionally, an alcoholic beverage such as wine or beer is sometimes ordered.
If you are invited out for a business meal, the host will usually pay.
If you are invited out, but your host does not offer to pay, you should be prepared to pay for your own meal.
When eating out, the cost is sometimes shared with friends or colleagues, a practice often referred to as "getting separate checks", "going Dutch", or "splitting the bill."
If you invite a U.S. counterpart out socially, you must make it clear whether you wish to pay.
The fork is held in the right hand and is used for eating. The knife is used to cut or spread something onto a food item. To use the knife, the fork is switched to the left hand or is laid down; to continue eating, the fork is switched back to the right hand. But, if you prefer to use the “continental” style of dining, in which the knife and fork are never switched, that is acceptable, too.
Unlike some other cultures, it's perfectly acceptable to refuse an offer of food or drink; moreover, in most cases, the host probably won't urge you to eat.
Many foods are eaten with the hands, so you may want to follow the example of your companions.
There are a variety of ways to beckon a server. For example, you can make eye contact and raise your eyebrows, briefly wave to get his or her attention, or mouth the word for what you want such as "water" or "coffee." To call for the check, you can make a writing gesture or mouth the word "check, please."
It is not considered rude to eat while walking down the street.
Business gifts are often presented after the deal is closed. In most situations, gifts are usually unwrapped immediately and shown to all assembled. If you receive a Christmas gift, however, you may be asked to wait until Christmas Day to open it.
In many cases, the best gifts are those that come from your country.
You may not receive a gift in return right away.
During the Christmas season, gifts are exchanged. For your business associates, you can give gifts such as useful items for the office, liquor or wine.
When you visit a home, it is not necessary to take a gift, although it is always appreciated. Flowers, a potted plant, or a bottle of wine can be good gift choices.
Taking someone out for a meal or other entertainment is another popular gift.
Gifts for women such as perfume or clothing are usually inappropriate because they are considered far too personal.
Gifts for children are often a thoughtful and appreciated gesture, but take into account the values of the parents. For example, some parents might object to your giving a toy gun or a violent video game to their child. Acceptable public conduct
適宜的公眾社交禮儀與舉止
Smoking is not as commonplace and is subject to restrictions in most public places. Before smoking, the best policy is to ask if anyone minds, or wait to see if others smoke. Restaurants often have a section where smoking is permitted; many hotels designate rooms as smoking and non-smoking.
A handshake is the customary greeting for both men and women, although you should wait to see if the woman offers her hand.
Apart from greeting close family members or friends, Americans tend to refrain from greetings that involve hugging and other close physical contact. For the most part, they are unreceptive to being touched during conversation and other social situations.
The standard space between you and your conversation partner should be about two feet. Most U.S. executives will be uncomfortable standing at a closer distance.
Direct eye contact conveys that you are sincere, although it should not be too intense. Certain ethnic groups will look away to show respect.
Friends or acquaintances of the same sex generally do not hold hands.
To point, you may use the index finger, although it's impolite to point at another person.
To beckon someone, wave either all the fingers or just the index finger in a scooping motion, with the palm facing up.
To show approval, there are two common gestures: the "O.K." sign, formed by making a circle of the thumb and index finger, and the "thumbs up" sign, formed by making a fist and pointing the thumb upward.
What You Should Know About a Contract
² Why Do I Need A Contract? 為什么需要合同?
You don’t have to be a lawyer to reap the benefits of writing your own contracts. A little common sense goes a long way and a good contract does more that just cover your rear should you end up in court. Written correctly, a contract can demonstrate business professionalism, weed out insincere clients, organize your duties, speed up your pay, help you get insurance, avoid disputes, make mutual obligations clear and keep you out of court.
² What is a Contract? 什么是合同?
A contract is a legally binding agreement. Contracts are either formal (written) or simple (verbal). It may be a bilateral contract, performed by both parties, or unilateral, a promise in exchange for an act or performance of a task or deed. Contracts may be voided, that is, the parties may agree to nullify the contract or it may be voided by a court of law. These are some of the characteristics of a contract.
² Elements of a Good Contract 合同的要素
Every good contract has four essential component parts. They are: offer and acceptance, mutuality and consideration, competent parties, and a legal object.
An offer is communicated verbally or in writing and has definite terms. Mutuality indicates duties or actions are performed by each party. Consideration means that something of value is exchanged. Competent parties speak to the mental and legal capacity of the parties involved in making the contract. A legal object connotes a legal objective and no criminal intent.
Contracts don’t have to be formal: a letter of agreement is a contract too. In fact, a contract can be anything — it can be oral, can be written on a napkin(though not advised), can be a purchase order or a combination of documents exchanged between parties. It has no particular form. Written is better, though, then the terms are less often questioned.
To construct your own contract, specify the issues and conditions that matter. Independent consultants, for example struggle with Internal Revenue Service rules that threaten to reclassify them as employees. In an independent contractors contract state “the contractor is an independent contractor and not an employee.” That will protect the business identity and relieve your client of the fear that they will end up having to pay your health insurance premiums and Social Security taxes.