第二章 財產(chǎn)和財產(chǎn)權(quán)
2.1 What is Property
Property一般譯為"財產(chǎn)",通常的理解是指某一具體的物,又可以分為不動產(chǎn)（Real property）和動產(chǎn)（Personal
property）,這種劃分來源于普通法早期的訴訟程序, 在此訴訟程序中,有兩種訴訟,一為"真實的訴訟"（Real
action）,處理土地為他人不當(dāng)占有的案子,這時土地可以返回給合法的所有人,另一種為"個人的訴訟"（Personal
action）,處理土地以外的的財產(chǎn)糾紛,這時所有人只能獲得金錢賠償,不得要求返還原物。
關(guān)于動產(chǎn),英文有"Chattels"和"Personal property"兩種不同的表述,現(xiàn)在,人們一改早期普遍使用的"Chattels",而廣泛地采用"Personal
property".動產(chǎn)又可以分為兩類:有形動產(chǎn)（Tangible personal property）和無形動產(chǎn)（
Intangible personal property
Types of property）,前者指能夠看到、摸得到的有體財產(chǎn),而后者則指看不到、摸不到的無體財產(chǎn),如股份,銀行賬號,人壽保險等。
Note:According to Black's
Law Dictionary, property is defined as:
"That which is peculiar or proper to any person； that which
belongs exclusively to one. An aggregate of rights which are
guaranteed and protected by the government. Property extends
to every species of valuable right and interest……the right
to
posses it, use it, and to exclude every one else from interfering
with it."
問題:下面哪些不是財產(chǎn)？
a） Military Retirement
b） Earning Capacity
c） Accrued Goodwill of Medical Practice
d） Law Degree
答案:都不是
2.2 Philosophies
財產(chǎn)和財產(chǎn)權(quán)是什么？不同的法學(xué)家和法學(xué)派（Philosophies）有不同的觀點,以下就是幾個有代表性的觀點:
Posner（波斯納）:（1）財產(chǎn)權(quán)是天賦的（Property
rights are "natural"）；（2）沒有財產(chǎn)權(quán),財產(chǎn)就不能被有效地利用（Without
property rights, there is no incentive to use property efficiently.）；（3）普遍性（Universality）、排他性（Exclusivity）和可轉(zhuǎn)讓性（Transferability）是財產(chǎn)權(quán)的三大要素（Three
Elements）。
Bentham （邊沁）:Property是一種"能夠從物當(dāng)中獲得一種利益的期待"（basis
for expectation）。
Cohen（科恩）:財產(chǎn)權(quán)必須要考慮到下列因素:政府、契約、管制、價值（Property
merges by imperceptible degrees into government, contract, force
& value）。
Locke（洛克）:勞動創(chuàng)造財產(chǎn)（Labor creates
property）。
Note:
關(guān)于邊沁和波斯納之觀點比較,請參見下列注釋:
Comparing Bentham to Posner
（1） Anomalies under Bentham: Under the Posner theory, property
is something that has value, not just what is legally defined
as property as under Bentham, but from what people hold as having
value. There are several cases of items treated as property
without law, such as illegal drugs, territories for marketing
such, boyfriends and girlfriends. Here no property right exists
but people treat it as such either by enforcement of societal
values or by fear of retaliation.
（2） Anomalies under Posner: Transferability frequently measures
more how much a person wants something, we being non-rational
operators, than how efficiently we will do so. Transferability
of some items actually induces inefficiencies, such as those
which are merit based. If you could transfer law school admissions,
you would be measuring who wanted it the most, or who could
pay the most for it, and not who could best utilize it.
2.3 Attributes of Ownership
大陸法系的法律以所有權(quán)（Ownership）為基礎(chǔ)來分析財產(chǎn)和財產(chǎn)權(quán),宣稱"一物一權(quán)",美國財產(chǎn)法不像大陸法系那樣強調(diào)財產(chǎn)的所有權(quán),它重視的是財產(chǎn)權(quán)中各種不同的利益和所有權(quán)的分割情況（Attributes
of Ownership）,這些利益常常是指:
e） 占有權(quán)——Possession （right to have, hold, & keep）
f） 排他權(quán)——Exclusion （right to exclude others）
g） 處置權(quán)——Disposition （right to alienate）
h） 使用權(quán)——Use （right to employ the property as desired）
i） 受益權(quán)——Benefit （right to profits realized through property's
use）
j） 破壞權(quán)——Destruction （right to destroy property）
2.4 Origins of Property
一個人如何獲得一件物品的財產(chǎn)權(quán)呢？財產(chǎn)權(quán)的最原始取得（Origins of Property）是如何實現(xiàn)的呢？按照洛克的觀點（Lockean
view）:財產(chǎn)是通過勞動和努力來取得的（Property is acquired through investment
of labor and effort）,關(guān)于財產(chǎn)的取得（Acquisition）,這里還有一條重要的原則: First
in time, first in right（時間在先,則權(quán)利在先）。例如在美國:Indians have right
to land, they were here first
Note:如果想在美國買房子或土地,就要查詢其所有權(quán)的鏈鎖（Chain of title）,這個鏈鎖可以追溯到該財產(chǎn)的原始取得之時,如果這個鏈鎖的記錄有問題,那你購買該財產(chǎn)就不安全,別的人可能對所有權(quán)提出爭議,這個情況我們以后會詳細(xì)討論。
2.1 What is Property
Property一般譯為"財產(chǎn)",通常的理解是指某一具體的物,又可以分為不動產(chǎn)（Real property）和動產(chǎn)（Personal
property）,這種劃分來源于普通法早期的訴訟程序, 在此訴訟程序中,有兩種訴訟,一為"真實的訴訟"（Real
action）,處理土地為他人不當(dāng)占有的案子,這時土地可以返回給合法的所有人,另一種為"個人的訴訟"（Personal
action）,處理土地以外的的財產(chǎn)糾紛,這時所有人只能獲得金錢賠償,不得要求返還原物。
關(guān)于動產(chǎn),英文有"Chattels"和"Personal property"兩種不同的表述,現(xiàn)在,人們一改早期普遍使用的"Chattels",而廣泛地采用"Personal
property".動產(chǎn)又可以分為兩類:有形動產(chǎn)（Tangible personal property）和無形動產(chǎn)（
Intangible personal property
Types of property）,前者指能夠看到、摸得到的有體財產(chǎn),而后者則指看不到、摸不到的無體財產(chǎn),如股份,銀行賬號,人壽保險等。
Note:According to Black's
Law Dictionary, property is defined as:
"That which is peculiar or proper to any person； that which
belongs exclusively to one. An aggregate of rights which are
guaranteed and protected by the government. Property extends
to every species of valuable right and interest……the right
to
posses it, use it, and to exclude every one else from interfering
with it."
問題:下面哪些不是財產(chǎn)？
a） Military Retirement
b） Earning Capacity
c） Accrued Goodwill of Medical Practice
d） Law Degree
答案:都不是
2.2 Philosophies
財產(chǎn)和財產(chǎn)權(quán)是什么？不同的法學(xué)家和法學(xué)派（Philosophies）有不同的觀點,以下就是幾個有代表性的觀點:
Posner（波斯納）:（1）財產(chǎn)權(quán)是天賦的（Property
rights are "natural"）；（2）沒有財產(chǎn)權(quán),財產(chǎn)就不能被有效地利用（Without
property rights, there is no incentive to use property efficiently.）；（3）普遍性（Universality）、排他性（Exclusivity）和可轉(zhuǎn)讓性（Transferability）是財產(chǎn)權(quán)的三大要素（Three
Elements）。
Bentham （邊沁）:Property是一種"能夠從物當(dāng)中獲得一種利益的期待"（basis
for expectation）。
Cohen（科恩）:財產(chǎn)權(quán)必須要考慮到下列因素:政府、契約、管制、價值（Property
merges by imperceptible degrees into government, contract, force
& value）。
Locke（洛克）:勞動創(chuàng)造財產(chǎn)（Labor creates
property）。
Note:
關(guān)于邊沁和波斯納之觀點比較,請參見下列注釋:
Comparing Bentham to Posner
（1） Anomalies under Bentham: Under the Posner theory, property
is something that has value, not just what is legally defined
as property as under Bentham, but from what people hold as having
value. There are several cases of items treated as property
without law, such as illegal drugs, territories for marketing
such, boyfriends and girlfriends. Here no property right exists
but people treat it as such either by enforcement of societal
values or by fear of retaliation.
（2） Anomalies under Posner: Transferability frequently measures
more how much a person wants something, we being non-rational
operators, than how efficiently we will do so. Transferability
of some items actually induces inefficiencies, such as those
which are merit based. If you could transfer law school admissions,
you would be measuring who wanted it the most, or who could
pay the most for it, and not who could best utilize it.
2.3 Attributes of Ownership
大陸法系的法律以所有權(quán)（Ownership）為基礎(chǔ)來分析財產(chǎn)和財產(chǎn)權(quán),宣稱"一物一權(quán)",美國財產(chǎn)法不像大陸法系那樣強調(diào)財產(chǎn)的所有權(quán),它重視的是財產(chǎn)權(quán)中各種不同的利益和所有權(quán)的分割情況（Attributes
of Ownership）,這些利益常常是指:
e） 占有權(quán)——Possession （right to have, hold, & keep）
f） 排他權(quán)——Exclusion （right to exclude others）
g） 處置權(quán)——Disposition （right to alienate）
h） 使用權(quán)——Use （right to employ the property as desired）
i） 受益權(quán)——Benefit （right to profits realized through property's
use）
j） 破壞權(quán)——Destruction （right to destroy property）
2.4 Origins of Property
一個人如何獲得一件物品的財產(chǎn)權(quán)呢？財產(chǎn)權(quán)的最原始取得（Origins of Property）是如何實現(xiàn)的呢？按照洛克的觀點（Lockean
view）:財產(chǎn)是通過勞動和努力來取得的（Property is acquired through investment
of labor and effort）,關(guān)于財產(chǎn)的取得（Acquisition）,這里還有一條重要的原則: First
in time, first in right（時間在先,則權(quán)利在先）。例如在美國:Indians have right
to land, they were here first
Note:如果想在美國買房子或土地,就要查詢其所有權(quán)的鏈鎖（Chain of title）,這個鏈鎖可以追溯到該財產(chǎn)的原始取得之時,如果這個鏈鎖的記錄有問題,那你購買該財產(chǎn)就不安全,別的人可能對所有權(quán)提出爭議,這個情況我們以后會詳細(xì)討論。