The ways Henry II reform the courts and the law.
亨利二世對(duì)法院及法律進(jìn)行改革的方式。
King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign, a common law was gradually established in place of the previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system. Besides, he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from the Bishop's court to the King's court.
亨利二世大大加強(qiáng)了王家法院，擴(kuò)展了其司法工作的職權(quán)范圍。他將全國(guó)分為六個(gè)審制區(qū)。案件更多地由巡回法官審理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他統(tǒng)治時(shí)期，逐漸建立起超越地方領(lǐng)主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪審員制度代替了舊的殘酷的審判制度。他堅(jiān)持被控犯有刑事罪的神職人員應(yīng)由國(guó)王法庭審判，而不由主教法庭審判。
II．Contents and the significance of the Great Charter
《大憲章》的內(nèi)容及意義
Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important provisions are as follows: (1) no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council; (2) no freemen should be arrested, imprisoned or deprived of their property; (3) the Church should possess all its rights, together with freedom of elections; (4) London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and privileges, and (5) there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties, it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.
《大憲章》是約翰國(guó)王1215年在封建貴族壓力下簽定的。《大憲章》總共63條，其中最重要的內(nèi)容是：(1) 未經(jīng)大議會(huì)同意，不得征稅；(2) 只有根據(jù)國(guó)家有關(guān)法律才能逮捕、監(jiān)禁自由人以及剝奪他們的財(cái)產(chǎn)；(3)教會(huì)應(yīng)享受其所有權(quán)利且有選舉自由；（4） 倫敦和其它城鎮(zhèn)應(yīng)保留其古時(shí)的權(quán)力和特權(quán)；(5) 全國(guó)要使用統(tǒng)一的重量和長(zhǎng)度度量衡。盡管人們普遍認(rèn)為《大憲章》為英國(guó)的自由奠定了基礎(chǔ)，但該憲章只是規(guī)定國(guó)王和貴族之間封建關(guān)系和法律關(guān)系的文件，保證了教會(huì)的自由，限制了國(guó)王權(quán)利?！洞髴椪隆返木袷窍拗茋?guó)王權(quán)力，使其在英國(guó)封建法律允許的范圍內(nèi)活動(dòng)。
III.The origins of the English Parliament
英國(guó)議會(huì)的起源
The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council, together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice. There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords.
大議會(huì)是當(dāng)今英國(guó)議會(huì)的原型。1265年，西門(mén)德孟福爾召開(kāi)大議會(huì)，各縣有兩名騎士，各鎮(zhèn)有兩名市民參加。大議會(huì)發(fā)展到后來(lái)演變成議會(huì)，分為上議院和下議院。其作用是咨詢(xún)而非決定；也沒(méi)有選舉和政黨。議會(huì)的最重要的部分是上議院。