天高鳥飛，海闊魚躍;考試這舞臺(tái)，秀出你獨(dú)特的精彩;一宿好的睡眠，精神能百倍;一顆淡定的平常心，沉著應(yīng)對(duì)，努力備考，考入理想院校！以下是為大家整理的 《2018年10月自考英語(yǔ)（二）閱讀強(qiáng)化輔導(dǎo)【5-8】》供您查閱。
【篇一】
Black Holes
What is a black hole? Well, it's difficult to answer this question, since the terms we would normally use to describe a scientific phenomenon are inadequate here.
Astronomers and scientists think that a black hole is a region of space (not a thing) into which matter has fallen and from which nothing can escape - not even light.
So we can't see a black hole. A black hole exerts a strong gravitational pull and yet it has no matter. It is only space - or so we think. How can this happen?
The theory is that some stars explode when their density increases to a particular point; they collapse and sometimes a supernova occurs. From earth, a supernova looks like a very bright light in the sky which shines even in the daytime. Supernovae were reported by astronomers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Some people think that the Star of Bethlehem could have been a supernova. The collapse of a star may produce a White Dwarf or neutron star - a star, whose matter is so dense that it continually shrinks by the force of its own gravity. But if the star is very large (much bigger than our sun) this process of shrinking may be so intense that a black hole results. Imagine the earth reduced to the size of a marble, but still having the same mass and a stronger gravitational pull, and you have some idea of the force of a black hole. Any matter near the black hole is sucked in. It is impossible to say what happens inside a black hole. Scientists have called the boundary area around the hole the "event horizon." We know nothing about events which happen once objects pass this boundary. But in theory, matter must behave very differently inside the hole.
For example, if a man fell into a black hole, he would think that he reached the center of it very quickly. However an observer at the event horizon would think that the man never reached the center at all. Our space and time laws don't seem to apply to objects in the area of a black hole. Einstein's relativity theory is the only one which can explain such phenomena. Einstein claimed that matter and energy are interchangeable, so that there is no "absolute" time and space. There are no constants at all, and measurements of time and space depend on the position of the observer. They are relative. We do not yet fully understand the implications of the relativity theory; but it is interesting that Einstein's theory provided a basis for the idea of black holes before astronomers started to find some evidence for their existence. It is only recently that astronomers have begun specific research into black hole. In august 1977, a satellite was launched to gather data about the 10 million black holes which are thought to be in the Milky Way. And astronomers are planning a new observatory to study the individual exploding stars believed to be black holes.
The most convincing evidence of black holes comes from research into binary star systems. Binary stars, as their name suggests, are twin stars whose position in space affects each other. In some binary systems, astronomers have shown that there is an invisible companion star, a "partner" to the one which we can see in the sky. Matter from the one which we can see is being pulled towards the companion star.
Could this invisible star, which exerts such a great force, be a black hole? Astronomers have evidence of a few other stars too, which might have black holes as companions.
The story of black holes is just beginning. Speculations about them are endless. There might be a massive black hole at the center of our galaxy swallowing up stars at a very rapid rate. Mankind may one day meet this fate. On the other hand, scientists have suggested that very advanced technology could one day make use of the energy of black holes for mankind. These speculations sound like science fiction. But the theory of black holes in space is accepted by many serious scientists and astronomers. They show us a world which operates in a totally different way from our own and they question our most basic experience of space and time.
黑洞
什么是黑洞呢?這個(gè)問題很難回答，因?yàn)槲覀兺ǔＳ脕砻枋鲆环N科學(xué)現(xiàn)象的術(shù)語(yǔ)用在這里來解釋是不夠的。
天文學(xué)家和科學(xué)家們認(rèn)為黑洞是個(gè)空間區(qū)域，物體會(huì)掉進(jìn)去，而沒有物體能從中逃逸出來――即使是光也不能，所以我們看不到黑洞。黑洞產(chǎn)生很強(qiáng)的引力，而它卻沒有物質(zhì)。它只是空間――或者我們認(rèn)為是空間。這是怎樣發(fā)生的呢?
理論是一些星球的密度增長(zhǎng)到特定的時(shí)刻就會(huì)爆炸。它們崩潰時(shí)會(huì)產(chǎn)生超新星。在地球上看去，超新星就像天空中非常耀眼的燈，即使在白天也能看到其閃光。在17、18世紀(jì)，天文學(xué)家就有關(guān)于超新星的記錄，一些人認(rèn)為圣誕星可能是一顆超新星。一顆星崩潰可能產(chǎn)生吸引力，你就了解黑洞的力量。黑洞附近任何物質(zhì)都會(huì)被吸進(jìn)去，根本不可能說出黑洞里面發(fā)生了什么?？茖W(xué)家們把這個(gè)洞的邊緣區(qū)域稱為"事界"。一旦物體經(jīng)過這個(gè)邊界，我們對(duì)所發(fā)生的事一無所知。
但是在理論上，在黑洞里的物質(zhì)的運(yùn)動(dòng)肯定與洞外有很大區(qū)別。例如：如果一個(gè)人掉進(jìn)黑洞，他會(huì)認(rèn)為自己很快就達(dá)到了其核心，但在"事界"的觀察者則認(rèn)為這個(gè)人根本不會(huì)到達(dá)黑洞的核心。我們的時(shí)空規(guī)律看起來不適于黑洞里的物體。愛因斯坦的相對(duì)論是可以解釋這種現(xiàn)象的理論。愛因斯坦聲稱物質(zhì)和能量是可以互相轉(zhuǎn)化的，因此就沒有絕對(duì)的時(shí)間和空間，根本不存在永恒，時(shí)間和空間的衡量取決于觀測(cè)者所在的位置，它們是相對(duì)的。我們還沒有完全理解相對(duì)論的含義，但有意思的是，在天文學(xué)家的著手發(fā)現(xiàn)黑洞的存在證據(jù)之前，愛因斯坦就提供了黑洞這種想法的基礎(chǔ)。只是近來科學(xué)家才開始對(duì)黑洞的具體研究。1977年8月，發(fā)射了一顆衛(wèi)星去收集關(guān)于被認(rèn)為是在銀河系的一千萬個(gè)黑洞的數(shù)據(jù)。天文學(xué)家正在計(jì)劃一個(gè)新的天文臺(tái)以研究個(gè)別的正在爆炸的被相信要變?yōu)楹诙吹男乔颉?BR> 黑洞有說服力的證據(jù)來自對(duì)雙星系的研究。雙星，正如它們的名字所表明的，是兩顆在空間位置上互相影響的星球。在一些雙星系里，天文學(xué)家已經(jīng)表示這里有一顆看不到的伴星，即我們可以在天空中看到的一顆星球的伙伴。來自我們的看到的星球的物質(zhì)正被吸引到伴星去。這顆產(chǎn)生如此巨大力量的看不見的星球會(huì)是黑洞嗎?天文學(xué)家還有其他一些星球的證據(jù)，這些星球可能與黑洞相伴。
對(duì)黑洞的研究剛剛開始，各種推測(cè)會(huì)層出不窮。在我們銀河系的中心很可能存在著一個(gè)巨大的黑洞正以極快的速度吞食著星球。人類有一天也會(huì)面臨被吞食的命運(yùn)。而科學(xué)家提出，有一天高科技利用軒洞的能量為人類服務(wù)。這些設(shè)想聽起來像科幻小說，但空間中黑洞的理論被許多嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)?shù)目茖W(xué)家和天文學(xué)家接受。他們向我們展示了一個(gè)以完全不同于我們理解的方式運(yùn)行的世界，并對(duì)我們基本的時(shí)空經(jīng)驗(yàn)提出了疑問。
【篇二】
Worlds within Worlds
First of all let us consider the earth (that is to say, the world) as a planet revolving round the sun. The earth is one of mine planets which move in orbit round the sun. These nine planets, together with the sun, make up what is called our solar system. How this wonderful system started and what kept it working with such wonderful accuracy is largely a mystery but astronomers tell us that it is only one of millions of similar systems is space, and one of the smallest.
The stars which we see glittering in the sky on a dark and cloudless night are almost certainly the suns of other solar systems more or less like our own, but they are so far away in space that it is unlikely that we shall ever get to know very much about them. About our own solar system, however, we are learning more every day.
Before the American and Russian astronauts made their thrilling journeys into outer space it was difficult for us to realise what our earth looked like from hundreds of thousands of miles away, but the photographs which the astronauts were able to take show us the earth in space looking not very different from what the moon looks like when we look at it from the earth. The earth is, however, very different from the moon, which the American astronauts have found to be without life or vegetation, whereas our earth is very much alive in every respect. The moon, by the way , is called a satellite because it goes round our earth as well as round the sun. In other words, it goes round the sun with our earth.
The surface of our earth is covered by masses of land and larger areas of water. Let us consider the water areas first. The total water area is about three times as large as the land area. The very large separate areas of water are called "oceans" and the lesser areas are called "seas."
In most of the oceans and seas some of the water is found to be flowing in a particular direction - that is to say, from one part towards another part of the ocean or sea concerned. The water which is flowing in this manner is said to be moving as a "current." There are many thousands of currents in the waters of the oceans and seas, but only certain of the stronger and better marked currents are specially named and or great importance. These currents are important because they affect the climate of the land areas close to where they flow and also because they carry large quantities of microscopic animal and vegetable life which forms a large part of the food for fishes.
The nature and characteristics of the surface of the land areas of the earth vary a great deal from area to area and from place to place. The surface of some areas consists largely of high mountains and deep valleys whilst, in other areas, most of the surface consists of plains. If one made a journey over the Continents one would find every kind of surface including mountain ranges, plains, plateaux, deserts, tropical forestlands and empty areas covered permanently by ice and snow.
When thinking and learning about the world we should not forget that our world is the home of a very great many different people - peoples with different coloured skins, living very different lives and having very different ideas about a great many important things such as religion, government, education and social behaviour.
The circumstances under which different people live make a great difference between the way in which they live and the way in which we live, and it ought to be our business to try to understand those different circumstances so that we can better understand people of other lands. Above all, we should avoid deciding what we think about people different from ourselves without first having learned a great deal about them and the kind of lives they have to live. It is true to say that the more we learn about other people, the better we understand their ideas and, as a rule, the better we like those people themselves.
世界中的世界
首先讓我們把地球看作是圍繞太陽(yáng)運(yùn)行的一顆行星。地球是沿軌道圍繞太陽(yáng)運(yùn)行的九大行星之一。這九大行星和太陽(yáng)一起組成了所謂的我們的太陽(yáng)系。這個(gè)奇妙的星系是怎樣開始的，什么使它保持精確地運(yùn)行，這是一個(gè)很大的迷。但是天文學(xué)家告訴我們太陽(yáng)系只是太空里幾百萬個(gè)相似的星系中的一個(gè)而且是小的一個(gè)。
在漆黑的夜空，我們看到的閃爍的星星幾乎肯定是其他太陽(yáng)系中有些類似我們星系中的恒星。但是它們?cè)谔罩芯嚯x我們?nèi)绱诉b遠(yuǎn)以至于我們不可能對(duì)其了解太多。
然而對(duì)于我們的太陽(yáng)系，每天我們都會(huì)了解到更多東西。在美國(guó)和俄羅斯宇航員進(jìn)行激動(dòng)人心的太空旅行之前，我們很難認(rèn)識(shí)到從數(shù)十萬英里以外的地方看地球會(huì)是什么樣子。但是宇航員們能夠拍到的照片為我們展示出在太空中地球看上去和我們?cè)诘厍蛏峡吹降脑铝翛]有什么大的不同。然而，地球和月亮確有很大不同，這就是美國(guó)宇航員所發(fā)現(xiàn)的月球上沒有生命和植物。而我們地球的各個(gè)地方都有生機(jī)。順便說一下，月亮被稱為衛(wèi)星，是因?yàn)樗鼑@著我們地地球盍同時(shí)圍繞太陽(yáng)運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)。換句話說，隨著地球圍繞太陽(yáng)運(yùn)行。
我們地球表面覆蓋著一塊塊的陸地和更大面積的水域。讓我們首先考慮一下水域，其總面積大約是陸地面積的三倍。很大的隔開的水域稱為"洋"，小一些的水域稱為"海"。
在大部分海洋里，人們發(fā)現(xiàn)一些水是沿著特有的方向流動(dòng)---這就是說，從海洋的一個(gè)區(qū)域流向另一區(qū)域以這種方式流動(dòng)的水叫做"海流"。在海洋的水域里有成千上萬條海流，但只有幾條較強(qiáng)和較顯著的海流被專門命名。這些海流的重要，是因?yàn)樗鼈冇绊懼鹘?jīng)水域的陸地的氣候，并攜帶大量的微生物、植物，而這些卻是魚類的大部分食品。
地球不同區(qū)域的陸地表面自然特征區(qū)別很大。一些區(qū)域的地表由大量的高山和深谷組成，而其他區(qū)域，大部分地表卻由平原組成。如果一個(gè)人做大陸旅行，他會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)各種各樣的地貌，包括山區(qū)、平原、高原、沙漠、熱帶雨林和永久性冰雪覆蓋的空曠無人區(qū)。
當(dāng)我們想象和了解這個(gè)世界時(shí)，我們不應(yīng)忘記我們的世界是許多不同種類人居住的家園--他們有不同的膚色，過著極不相同的生活，對(duì)諸如宗教、政府、教育和社交行為等許多重要事情持有極為不同的觀點(diǎn)。不同民族的生活環(huán)境造就了他們和我們極為不同的生活方式，我們應(yīng)該做的是努力了解他們不同的生活環(huán)境以便更好地理解其他地區(qū)的人們。在沒有對(duì)他們及他們必須過的那種生活有相當(dāng)多的認(rèn)識(shí)前，我們應(yīng)當(dāng)避免對(duì)他們有先入為主的看法。確實(shí)我們了解別人越多，我們?cè)侥芾斫馑麄兊挠^點(diǎn)，通常我們就會(huì)更喜歡那些人。
【篇三】
The New Music
The new music was built out of materials already in existence: blues, rock'n'roll, folk music. But although the forms remained, something completely new and original was made out of these older elements - more original, perhaps, than even the new musicians themselves yet realize. The transformation took place in 1966-1967. Up to that time, the blues had been an essentially black medium.
Rock'n'roll, a blues derivative, was rhythmic dance music. Folk music, old and modern, was popular among college students. The three forms remained musically and culturally distinct, and even as late as 1965, none of them were expressing any radically new states of consciousness.
Blues expressed black soul; rock was the beat of youthful energy; and folk music expressed anti-war sentiments as well as love and hope.
In 1966-1967 there was spontaneous transformation. In the United States, it originated with youthful rock groups playing in San Francisco. In England, it was led by the Beatles, who were already established as an extremely fine and highly individual rock group.
What happened, as well as it can be put into words, was this. First, the separate musical traditions were brought together. Bob Dylan and the Jefferson Airplane played folk rock, folk ideas with a rock beat.
White rock groups began experimenting with the blues. Of course, white musicians had always played the blues, but essentially as imitators of the Negro style; now it began to be the white bands' own music. And all of the groups moved towards a broader eclecticism and synthesis.
They freely took over elements from jazz, from American country music, and as time went on from even more diverse sources. What developed was a music readily taking on various forms and capable of an almost limitless range of expression.
The second thing that happened was that all the musical groups began using the full range of electric instruments and the technology of electronic amplifiers. The electric guitar was an old instrument, but the new electronic effects were altogether different - so different that a new listener in 1967 might well feel that there had never been may sounds like that in the world before. Electronics did, in fact, make possible sounds that no instrument up to that time could produce. And in studio recordings, new techniques made possible effects that not even an electronic band could produce live.
Electronic amplifiers also made possible a fantastic increase in volume, the music becoming as loud and penetrating as the human ear could stand, and thereby achieving a "total" effect, so that instead of an audience of passive listeners, there were now audiences of total participants, feeling the music in all of their senses and all of bones.
Third, the music becomes a multi-media experience; a port of a total environment. The walls of the ballrooms were covered with changing patterns of light, the beginning of the new art of the light show. And the audience did not sit, it danced. With records at home, listeners imitated these lighting effects as best they could, and heightened the whole experience by using drugs. Often music was played out of doors, where nature provided the environment.
新音樂
新音樂的素材來源于布魯斯、搖滾和民間音樂，雖然保存了它們的形式，但從這些較早的音樂中卻產(chǎn)生了一些全新而富有創(chuàng)意的東西--也許比新的音樂家所意識(shí)到的還有創(chuàng)意。這種變化發(fā)生于1966-1967年間，這之前布魯斯一直是黑人音樂的基本表現(xiàn)形式。
搖滾衍生于布魯斯，是一種很有節(jié)奏的舞蹈音樂。而民間音樂，不論古老的還是現(xiàn)代的，都很受大學(xué)生們的喜愛。這三種形式一直保留著音樂和文化上和特色，甚至到了1965年，他們中也沒有一種形式表達(dá)一些全新的意識(shí)形態(tài)。
布魯斯表達(dá)黑人的情感;搖滾是青春活力的跳動(dòng);而民間音樂表現(xiàn)愛、希望以及反戰(zhàn)情緒。
1966-1967年這些音樂形勢(shì)自然而然地發(fā)生了變化。這一變化在美國(guó)起始于舊金山演出的青年搖滾樂隊(duì)，在英國(guó)則由甲殼蟲樂隊(duì)，他們當(dāng)時(shí)已經(jīng)成立了非常不錯(cuò)、極有個(gè)性的搖滾組合。當(dāng)時(shí)所發(fā)生的一切盡可能訴諸文字如下。
首先那些獨(dú)立的音樂傳統(tǒng)融合起來。鮑勃迪倫和杰菲遜飛機(jī)樂隊(duì)演奏的民間搖滾將民歌的歌詞配上了搖滾節(jié)奏。白人搖滾樂隊(duì)也開始嘗試布魯斯。其實(shí)白人音樂家一直都在嚴(yán)奏布魯斯，不過基本是模仿黑人的風(fēng)范的折衷與融合。他們隨意的從爵士樂、鄉(xiāng)村音樂中吸取養(yǎng)分，隨著時(shí)間的推移甚至從更多來源中各取所需，很快一種形式各異的極具有表現(xiàn)力的音樂形成了。
其次所有的音樂組合都開始使用全套電子樂器和電子擴(kuò)間技術(shù)。吉他是舊式樂器，但是新的電子效果卻完全不同，在1967年第聽到它的人恐怕會(huì)感覺到以前世界上從來沒有像這樣的音響。電子技術(shù)確實(shí)制造出了此前樂器無法發(fā)出的各種聲響。在錄音室錄音，新的技術(shù)能做出連電子樂隊(duì)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)都演奏不出的效果。電子放大器也可以使音量大到極至，音樂顯得洪亮而有穿透力，震耳欲聾，因而達(dá)到一種徹底的效果，使得聽眾不再是被動(dòng)的接受者，而是完全地投入，用整個(gè)身心去感受音樂。
第三，音樂成為一種多媒體的感受、整個(gè)環(huán)境中的一部分。舞廳的墻上閃爍著變幻莫測(cè)的燈光。這是新的燈光藝術(shù)的開始。觀眾不是正襟危坐，而是跳動(dòng)不已。家中有唱片的人會(huì)模仿那些燈光效果，并使用實(shí)物來加強(qiáng)整體的感覺。音樂還往往以大自然為背景室外演奏。
【篇四】
Different Types of Composers
I can see three different types of composers in musical history, each of whom creates music in a somewhat different fashion.
The type that has fired public imagination most is that of the spontaneously inspired composer - the Franz Schubert type, in other words. All composers are inspired, of course, but this type is more spontaneously inspired. Music simply wells out of him. He can't get it down on paper fast enough. You can almost tell this type of composer by his fruitful output. In certain months, Schubert wrote a song a day. Hugo Wolf did the same.
In a sense, men of this kind begin not so much with a musical theme as with a completed composition. They invariably work best in the shorter forms. It is much easier to improvise a song than it is to improvise a symphony. It isn't easy to be inspired in that spontaneous way for long periods at a stretch. Even Schubert was more successful in handling the shorter forms of music. The spontaneously inspired man is only one type of composer, with this own limitations.
Beethoven belongs to the second type - the constructive type, one might call it. This type serves as an example of my theory of the creative process in music better than any other, because in this case the composer really does begin with a musical theme. In Beethoven's case there is no doubt about it, for we have the notebooks in which he put the themes down. We can see from his notebooks how he worked over his themes - how he would not let them be until they were as perfect as he could make them. Beethoven was not a spontaneously inspired composer in the
Schubert sense at all. He was the type that begins with a theme; makes it a preliminary idea; and upon that composes a musical work, day after day, in painstaking fashion. Most composers since Beethoven's day belong to this second type.
The third type of composer I can only call, for lack of a better name, the traditionalist type. Men like Palestrina and Bach belong in this category.
They both are characteristic of the kind of composer who is born in a particular period of musical history, when a certain musical style is about to reach its fullest development. It is a question at such a time of creating music in a well-known and accepted style and doing it in a way that is better than anyone has done it before you.
The traditionalist type of composer begins with a pattern rather than with a theme. The creative act with Palestrina is not the thematic conception so much as the personal treatment of a well-established pattern. And even Bach, who composed forty-eight of the most various and inspired themes in his Well Tempered Clavichord, knew in advance the general formal mold that they were to fill. It goes without saying that we are not living in a traditionalist period nowadays.
One might add, for the sake of completeness, a fourth type of composer - the pioneer type: men like Gesualdo in the seventeenth century,
Moussorgsky and Berlioz in the nineteenth, Debussy and Edgar Varese in the twentieth. It is difficult to summarize the composing methods of so diversified a group. One can safely say that their approach to composition is the opposite of the traditionalist type.
They clearly oppose conventional solutions of musical problems. In many ways, their attitude is experimental - they seek to add new harmonies, new sonorities, new formal principles. The pioneer type was the characteristic one at the turn of the seventeenth century and also at the beginning of the twentieth century, but it is much less evident today.
不同類型的音樂家
我發(fā)現(xiàn)音樂有三種不同類型的作曲家，他們各自創(chuàng)作的方式有不同。能激發(fā)公眾想象力的是自發(fā)式靈感型即弗朗茲·舒伯特型。當(dāng)然所有的作曲家都需要靈感，但這一類型的更具自發(fā)的靈感，音樂簡(jiǎn)直就是噴涌而出，多得來不及記錄，通過他們多產(chǎn)的作品你幾乎可以一下就認(rèn)出他們。有幾個(gè)月舒伯特幾乎譜成一曲，伍爾夫·雨果也是如此。
從一定意義上說，這類作曲家不是從一個(gè)主題開始而是從一部完整的作品一氣呵成。他們總是擅長(zhǎng)短形式的作品。即興創(chuàng)作一支歌曲比即興創(chuàng)作一部交響曲要簡(jiǎn)單得多。要長(zhǎng)時(shí)間連續(xù)不斷的獲得自發(fā)的靈感不容易，就是舒伯特也是短形式的音樂方面更為成功。自發(fā)式靈感型人只是作曲家的一種，他有他自己的局限。
貝多芬屬于第二類--可以稱之為建設(shè)型。和其他類型相比，這類作曲家更適合我的音樂創(chuàng)作過程理論的例證，因?yàn)閷?duì)這類作曲家來說，他們的確是從音樂主題開始創(chuàng)作的。以貝多芬為例這一點(diǎn)毋庸質(zhì)疑，因?yàn)槲覀冇兴浵乱魳分黝}的筆記本。我們可以從他的筆記本看出他是如何在主題上下功夫的--曲不完美誓不休。從舒伯特的意義上說，貝多芬絕對(duì)不是靈感自發(fā)型的作曲家。他是那類從主題開始、形成初步的構(gòu)思再日復(fù)一日辛勤地創(chuàng)作一部作品的作曲家。從貝多芬開始，許多的作曲家都屬于這第二類。
由于找不到更合適的稱呼，第三類作曲家姑且稱他們?yōu)閭鹘y(tǒng)類。帕勒斯提那的創(chuàng)作活動(dòng)與其說是主題概念不如說是對(duì)既定模式的個(gè)性化處理。即使創(chuàng)作了 48首主題各異充滿靈感的《平均律鋼琴曲集》的*也知道他們將遵循的一般模式。不用說今天我們不是生活在一個(gè)傳統(tǒng)時(shí)期。
為完整起見也許還應(yīng)加上第四種作曲家--先鋒型，諸如17世紀(jì)的杰蘇爾多、19世紀(jì)的穆索爾斯基和柏遼茲，以及20世紀(jì)的德彪西和瓦雷茲。這樣一類作曲家如此多樣化的創(chuàng)作手法難以概括，但可以肯定的一點(diǎn)是他們的作曲方法與傳統(tǒng)型針鋒相對(duì)。
他們鮮明地反對(duì)音樂問題的通行解決辦法。許多方面他們的態(tài)度是試驗(yàn)的--尋求添加新的融合、新的音效、新的創(chuàng)作形式。先鋒型在17世紀(jì)末和20世紀(jì)初期很具代表性，但是如今其特征已不太明顯。
【篇一】
Black Holes
What is a black hole? Well, it's difficult to answer this question, since the terms we would normally use to describe a scientific phenomenon are inadequate here.
Astronomers and scientists think that a black hole is a region of space (not a thing) into which matter has fallen and from which nothing can escape - not even light.
So we can't see a black hole. A black hole exerts a strong gravitational pull and yet it has no matter. It is only space - or so we think. How can this happen?
The theory is that some stars explode when their density increases to a particular point; they collapse and sometimes a supernova occurs. From earth, a supernova looks like a very bright light in the sky which shines even in the daytime. Supernovae were reported by astronomers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Some people think that the Star of Bethlehem could have been a supernova. The collapse of a star may produce a White Dwarf or neutron star - a star, whose matter is so dense that it continually shrinks by the force of its own gravity. But if the star is very large (much bigger than our sun) this process of shrinking may be so intense that a black hole results. Imagine the earth reduced to the size of a marble, but still having the same mass and a stronger gravitational pull, and you have some idea of the force of a black hole. Any matter near the black hole is sucked in. It is impossible to say what happens inside a black hole. Scientists have called the boundary area around the hole the "event horizon." We know nothing about events which happen once objects pass this boundary. But in theory, matter must behave very differently inside the hole.
For example, if a man fell into a black hole, he would think that he reached the center of it very quickly. However an observer at the event horizon would think that the man never reached the center at all. Our space and time laws don't seem to apply to objects in the area of a black hole. Einstein's relativity theory is the only one which can explain such phenomena. Einstein claimed that matter and energy are interchangeable, so that there is no "absolute" time and space. There are no constants at all, and measurements of time and space depend on the position of the observer. They are relative. We do not yet fully understand the implications of the relativity theory; but it is interesting that Einstein's theory provided a basis for the idea of black holes before astronomers started to find some evidence for their existence. It is only recently that astronomers have begun specific research into black hole. In august 1977, a satellite was launched to gather data about the 10 million black holes which are thought to be in the Milky Way. And astronomers are planning a new observatory to study the individual exploding stars believed to be black holes.
The most convincing evidence of black holes comes from research into binary star systems. Binary stars, as their name suggests, are twin stars whose position in space affects each other. In some binary systems, astronomers have shown that there is an invisible companion star, a "partner" to the one which we can see in the sky. Matter from the one which we can see is being pulled towards the companion star.
Could this invisible star, which exerts such a great force, be a black hole? Astronomers have evidence of a few other stars too, which might have black holes as companions.
The story of black holes is just beginning. Speculations about them are endless. There might be a massive black hole at the center of our galaxy swallowing up stars at a very rapid rate. Mankind may one day meet this fate. On the other hand, scientists have suggested that very advanced technology could one day make use of the energy of black holes for mankind. These speculations sound like science fiction. But the theory of black holes in space is accepted by many serious scientists and astronomers. They show us a world which operates in a totally different way from our own and they question our most basic experience of space and time.
黑洞
什么是黑洞呢?這個(gè)問題很難回答，因?yàn)槲覀兺ǔＳ脕砻枋鲆环N科學(xué)現(xiàn)象的術(shù)語(yǔ)用在這里來解釋是不夠的。
天文學(xué)家和科學(xué)家們認(rèn)為黑洞是個(gè)空間區(qū)域，物體會(huì)掉進(jìn)去，而沒有物體能從中逃逸出來――即使是光也不能，所以我們看不到黑洞。黑洞產(chǎn)生很強(qiáng)的引力，而它卻沒有物質(zhì)。它只是空間――或者我們認(rèn)為是空間。這是怎樣發(fā)生的呢?
理論是一些星球的密度增長(zhǎng)到特定的時(shí)刻就會(huì)爆炸。它們崩潰時(shí)會(huì)產(chǎn)生超新星。在地球上看去，超新星就像天空中非常耀眼的燈，即使在白天也能看到其閃光。在17、18世紀(jì)，天文學(xué)家就有關(guān)于超新星的記錄，一些人認(rèn)為圣誕星可能是一顆超新星。一顆星崩潰可能產(chǎn)生吸引力，你就了解黑洞的力量。黑洞附近任何物質(zhì)都會(huì)被吸進(jìn)去，根本不可能說出黑洞里面發(fā)生了什么?？茖W(xué)家們把這個(gè)洞的邊緣區(qū)域稱為"事界"。一旦物體經(jīng)過這個(gè)邊界，我們對(duì)所發(fā)生的事一無所知。
但是在理論上，在黑洞里的物質(zhì)的運(yùn)動(dòng)肯定與洞外有很大區(qū)別。例如：如果一個(gè)人掉進(jìn)黑洞，他會(huì)認(rèn)為自己很快就達(dá)到了其核心，但在"事界"的觀察者則認(rèn)為這個(gè)人根本不會(huì)到達(dá)黑洞的核心。我們的時(shí)空規(guī)律看起來不適于黑洞里的物體。愛因斯坦的相對(duì)論是可以解釋這種現(xiàn)象的理論。愛因斯坦聲稱物質(zhì)和能量是可以互相轉(zhuǎn)化的，因此就沒有絕對(duì)的時(shí)間和空間，根本不存在永恒，時(shí)間和空間的衡量取決于觀測(cè)者所在的位置，它們是相對(duì)的。我們還沒有完全理解相對(duì)論的含義，但有意思的是，在天文學(xué)家的著手發(fā)現(xiàn)黑洞的存在證據(jù)之前，愛因斯坦就提供了黑洞這種想法的基礎(chǔ)。只是近來科學(xué)家才開始對(duì)黑洞的具體研究。1977年8月，發(fā)射了一顆衛(wèi)星去收集關(guān)于被認(rèn)為是在銀河系的一千萬個(gè)黑洞的數(shù)據(jù)。天文學(xué)家正在計(jì)劃一個(gè)新的天文臺(tái)以研究個(gè)別的正在爆炸的被相信要變?yōu)楹诙吹男乔颉?BR> 黑洞有說服力的證據(jù)來自對(duì)雙星系的研究。雙星，正如它們的名字所表明的，是兩顆在空間位置上互相影響的星球。在一些雙星系里，天文學(xué)家已經(jīng)表示這里有一顆看不到的伴星，即我們可以在天空中看到的一顆星球的伙伴。來自我們的看到的星球的物質(zhì)正被吸引到伴星去。這顆產(chǎn)生如此巨大力量的看不見的星球會(huì)是黑洞嗎?天文學(xué)家還有其他一些星球的證據(jù)，這些星球可能與黑洞相伴。
對(duì)黑洞的研究剛剛開始，各種推測(cè)會(huì)層出不窮。在我們銀河系的中心很可能存在著一個(gè)巨大的黑洞正以極快的速度吞食著星球。人類有一天也會(huì)面臨被吞食的命運(yùn)。而科學(xué)家提出，有一天高科技利用軒洞的能量為人類服務(wù)。這些設(shè)想聽起來像科幻小說，但空間中黑洞的理論被許多嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)?shù)目茖W(xué)家和天文學(xué)家接受。他們向我們展示了一個(gè)以完全不同于我們理解的方式運(yùn)行的世界，并對(duì)我們基本的時(shí)空經(jīng)驗(yàn)提出了疑問。
【篇二】
Worlds within Worlds
First of all let us consider the earth (that is to say, the world) as a planet revolving round the sun. The earth is one of mine planets which move in orbit round the sun. These nine planets, together with the sun, make up what is called our solar system. How this wonderful system started and what kept it working with such wonderful accuracy is largely a mystery but astronomers tell us that it is only one of millions of similar systems is space, and one of the smallest.
The stars which we see glittering in the sky on a dark and cloudless night are almost certainly the suns of other solar systems more or less like our own, but they are so far away in space that it is unlikely that we shall ever get to know very much about them. About our own solar system, however, we are learning more every day.
Before the American and Russian astronauts made their thrilling journeys into outer space it was difficult for us to realise what our earth looked like from hundreds of thousands of miles away, but the photographs which the astronauts were able to take show us the earth in space looking not very different from what the moon looks like when we look at it from the earth. The earth is, however, very different from the moon, which the American astronauts have found to be without life or vegetation, whereas our earth is very much alive in every respect. The moon, by the way , is called a satellite because it goes round our earth as well as round the sun. In other words, it goes round the sun with our earth.
The surface of our earth is covered by masses of land and larger areas of water. Let us consider the water areas first. The total water area is about three times as large as the land area. The very large separate areas of water are called "oceans" and the lesser areas are called "seas."
In most of the oceans and seas some of the water is found to be flowing in a particular direction - that is to say, from one part towards another part of the ocean or sea concerned. The water which is flowing in this manner is said to be moving as a "current." There are many thousands of currents in the waters of the oceans and seas, but only certain of the stronger and better marked currents are specially named and or great importance. These currents are important because they affect the climate of the land areas close to where they flow and also because they carry large quantities of microscopic animal and vegetable life which forms a large part of the food for fishes.
The nature and characteristics of the surface of the land areas of the earth vary a great deal from area to area and from place to place. The surface of some areas consists largely of high mountains and deep valleys whilst, in other areas, most of the surface consists of plains. If one made a journey over the Continents one would find every kind of surface including mountain ranges, plains, plateaux, deserts, tropical forestlands and empty areas covered permanently by ice and snow.
When thinking and learning about the world we should not forget that our world is the home of a very great many different people - peoples with different coloured skins, living very different lives and having very different ideas about a great many important things such as religion, government, education and social behaviour.
The circumstances under which different people live make a great difference between the way in which they live and the way in which we live, and it ought to be our business to try to understand those different circumstances so that we can better understand people of other lands. Above all, we should avoid deciding what we think about people different from ourselves without first having learned a great deal about them and the kind of lives they have to live. It is true to say that the more we learn about other people, the better we understand their ideas and, as a rule, the better we like those people themselves.
世界中的世界
首先讓我們把地球看作是圍繞太陽(yáng)運(yùn)行的一顆行星。地球是沿軌道圍繞太陽(yáng)運(yùn)行的九大行星之一。這九大行星和太陽(yáng)一起組成了所謂的我們的太陽(yáng)系。這個(gè)奇妙的星系是怎樣開始的，什么使它保持精確地運(yùn)行，這是一個(gè)很大的迷。但是天文學(xué)家告訴我們太陽(yáng)系只是太空里幾百萬個(gè)相似的星系中的一個(gè)而且是小的一個(gè)。
在漆黑的夜空，我們看到的閃爍的星星幾乎肯定是其他太陽(yáng)系中有些類似我們星系中的恒星。但是它們?cè)谔罩芯嚯x我們?nèi)绱诉b遠(yuǎn)以至于我們不可能對(duì)其了解太多。
然而對(duì)于我們的太陽(yáng)系，每天我們都會(huì)了解到更多東西。在美國(guó)和俄羅斯宇航員進(jìn)行激動(dòng)人心的太空旅行之前，我們很難認(rèn)識(shí)到從數(shù)十萬英里以外的地方看地球會(huì)是什么樣子。但是宇航員們能夠拍到的照片為我們展示出在太空中地球看上去和我們?cè)诘厍蛏峡吹降脑铝翛]有什么大的不同。然而，地球和月亮確有很大不同，這就是美國(guó)宇航員所發(fā)現(xiàn)的月球上沒有生命和植物。而我們地球的各個(gè)地方都有生機(jī)。順便說一下，月亮被稱為衛(wèi)星，是因?yàn)樗鼑@著我們地地球盍同時(shí)圍繞太陽(yáng)運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)。換句話說，隨著地球圍繞太陽(yáng)運(yùn)行。
我們地球表面覆蓋著一塊塊的陸地和更大面積的水域。讓我們首先考慮一下水域，其總面積大約是陸地面積的三倍。很大的隔開的水域稱為"洋"，小一些的水域稱為"海"。
在大部分海洋里，人們發(fā)現(xiàn)一些水是沿著特有的方向流動(dòng)---這就是說，從海洋的一個(gè)區(qū)域流向另一區(qū)域以這種方式流動(dòng)的水叫做"海流"。在海洋的水域里有成千上萬條海流，但只有幾條較強(qiáng)和較顯著的海流被專門命名。這些海流的重要，是因?yàn)樗鼈冇绊懼鹘?jīng)水域的陸地的氣候，并攜帶大量的微生物、植物，而這些卻是魚類的大部分食品。
地球不同區(qū)域的陸地表面自然特征區(qū)別很大。一些區(qū)域的地表由大量的高山和深谷組成，而其他區(qū)域，大部分地表卻由平原組成。如果一個(gè)人做大陸旅行，他會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)各種各樣的地貌，包括山區(qū)、平原、高原、沙漠、熱帶雨林和永久性冰雪覆蓋的空曠無人區(qū)。
當(dāng)我們想象和了解這個(gè)世界時(shí)，我們不應(yīng)忘記我們的世界是許多不同種類人居住的家園--他們有不同的膚色，過著極不相同的生活，對(duì)諸如宗教、政府、教育和社交行為等許多重要事情持有極為不同的觀點(diǎn)。不同民族的生活環(huán)境造就了他們和我們極為不同的生活方式，我們應(yīng)該做的是努力了解他們不同的生活環(huán)境以便更好地理解其他地區(qū)的人們。在沒有對(duì)他們及他們必須過的那種生活有相當(dāng)多的認(rèn)識(shí)前，我們應(yīng)當(dāng)避免對(duì)他們有先入為主的看法。確實(shí)我們了解別人越多，我們?cè)侥芾斫馑麄兊挠^點(diǎn)，通常我們就會(huì)更喜歡那些人。
【篇三】
The New Music
The new music was built out of materials already in existence: blues, rock'n'roll, folk music. But although the forms remained, something completely new and original was made out of these older elements - more original, perhaps, than even the new musicians themselves yet realize. The transformation took place in 1966-1967. Up to that time, the blues had been an essentially black medium.
Rock'n'roll, a blues derivative, was rhythmic dance music. Folk music, old and modern, was popular among college students. The three forms remained musically and culturally distinct, and even as late as 1965, none of them were expressing any radically new states of consciousness.
Blues expressed black soul; rock was the beat of youthful energy; and folk music expressed anti-war sentiments as well as love and hope.
In 1966-1967 there was spontaneous transformation. In the United States, it originated with youthful rock groups playing in San Francisco. In England, it was led by the Beatles, who were already established as an extremely fine and highly individual rock group.
What happened, as well as it can be put into words, was this. First, the separate musical traditions were brought together. Bob Dylan and the Jefferson Airplane played folk rock, folk ideas with a rock beat.
White rock groups began experimenting with the blues. Of course, white musicians had always played the blues, but essentially as imitators of the Negro style; now it began to be the white bands' own music. And all of the groups moved towards a broader eclecticism and synthesis.
They freely took over elements from jazz, from American country music, and as time went on from even more diverse sources. What developed was a music readily taking on various forms and capable of an almost limitless range of expression.
The second thing that happened was that all the musical groups began using the full range of electric instruments and the technology of electronic amplifiers. The electric guitar was an old instrument, but the new electronic effects were altogether different - so different that a new listener in 1967 might well feel that there had never been may sounds like that in the world before. Electronics did, in fact, make possible sounds that no instrument up to that time could produce. And in studio recordings, new techniques made possible effects that not even an electronic band could produce live.
Electronic amplifiers also made possible a fantastic increase in volume, the music becoming as loud and penetrating as the human ear could stand, and thereby achieving a "total" effect, so that instead of an audience of passive listeners, there were now audiences of total participants, feeling the music in all of their senses and all of bones.
Third, the music becomes a multi-media experience; a port of a total environment. The walls of the ballrooms were covered with changing patterns of light, the beginning of the new art of the light show. And the audience did not sit, it danced. With records at home, listeners imitated these lighting effects as best they could, and heightened the whole experience by using drugs. Often music was played out of doors, where nature provided the environment.
新音樂
新音樂的素材來源于布魯斯、搖滾和民間音樂，雖然保存了它們的形式，但從這些較早的音樂中卻產(chǎn)生了一些全新而富有創(chuàng)意的東西--也許比新的音樂家所意識(shí)到的還有創(chuàng)意。這種變化發(fā)生于1966-1967年間，這之前布魯斯一直是黑人音樂的基本表現(xiàn)形式。
搖滾衍生于布魯斯，是一種很有節(jié)奏的舞蹈音樂。而民間音樂，不論古老的還是現(xiàn)代的，都很受大學(xué)生們的喜愛。這三種形式一直保留著音樂和文化上和特色，甚至到了1965年，他們中也沒有一種形式表達(dá)一些全新的意識(shí)形態(tài)。
布魯斯表達(dá)黑人的情感;搖滾是青春活力的跳動(dòng);而民間音樂表現(xiàn)愛、希望以及反戰(zhàn)情緒。
1966-1967年這些音樂形勢(shì)自然而然地發(fā)生了變化。這一變化在美國(guó)起始于舊金山演出的青年搖滾樂隊(duì)，在英國(guó)則由甲殼蟲樂隊(duì)，他們當(dāng)時(shí)已經(jīng)成立了非常不錯(cuò)、極有個(gè)性的搖滾組合。當(dāng)時(shí)所發(fā)生的一切盡可能訴諸文字如下。
首先那些獨(dú)立的音樂傳統(tǒng)融合起來。鮑勃迪倫和杰菲遜飛機(jī)樂隊(duì)演奏的民間搖滾將民歌的歌詞配上了搖滾節(jié)奏。白人搖滾樂隊(duì)也開始嘗試布魯斯。其實(shí)白人音樂家一直都在嚴(yán)奏布魯斯，不過基本是模仿黑人的風(fēng)范的折衷與融合。他們隨意的從爵士樂、鄉(xiāng)村音樂中吸取養(yǎng)分，隨著時(shí)間的推移甚至從更多來源中各取所需，很快一種形式各異的極具有表現(xiàn)力的音樂形成了。
其次所有的音樂組合都開始使用全套電子樂器和電子擴(kuò)間技術(shù)。吉他是舊式樂器，但是新的電子效果卻完全不同，在1967年第聽到它的人恐怕會(huì)感覺到以前世界上從來沒有像這樣的音響。電子技術(shù)確實(shí)制造出了此前樂器無法發(fā)出的各種聲響。在錄音室錄音，新的技術(shù)能做出連電子樂隊(duì)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)都演奏不出的效果。電子放大器也可以使音量大到極至，音樂顯得洪亮而有穿透力，震耳欲聾，因而達(dá)到一種徹底的效果，使得聽眾不再是被動(dòng)的接受者，而是完全地投入，用整個(gè)身心去感受音樂。
第三，音樂成為一種多媒體的感受、整個(gè)環(huán)境中的一部分。舞廳的墻上閃爍著變幻莫測(cè)的燈光。這是新的燈光藝術(shù)的開始。觀眾不是正襟危坐，而是跳動(dòng)不已。家中有唱片的人會(huì)模仿那些燈光效果，并使用實(shí)物來加強(qiáng)整體的感覺。音樂還往往以大自然為背景室外演奏。
【篇四】
Different Types of Composers
I can see three different types of composers in musical history, each of whom creates music in a somewhat different fashion.
The type that has fired public imagination most is that of the spontaneously inspired composer - the Franz Schubert type, in other words. All composers are inspired, of course, but this type is more spontaneously inspired. Music simply wells out of him. He can't get it down on paper fast enough. You can almost tell this type of composer by his fruitful output. In certain months, Schubert wrote a song a day. Hugo Wolf did the same.
In a sense, men of this kind begin not so much with a musical theme as with a completed composition. They invariably work best in the shorter forms. It is much easier to improvise a song than it is to improvise a symphony. It isn't easy to be inspired in that spontaneous way for long periods at a stretch. Even Schubert was more successful in handling the shorter forms of music. The spontaneously inspired man is only one type of composer, with this own limitations.
Beethoven belongs to the second type - the constructive type, one might call it. This type serves as an example of my theory of the creative process in music better than any other, because in this case the composer really does begin with a musical theme. In Beethoven's case there is no doubt about it, for we have the notebooks in which he put the themes down. We can see from his notebooks how he worked over his themes - how he would not let them be until they were as perfect as he could make them. Beethoven was not a spontaneously inspired composer in the
Schubert sense at all. He was the type that begins with a theme; makes it a preliminary idea; and upon that composes a musical work, day after day, in painstaking fashion. Most composers since Beethoven's day belong to this second type.
The third type of composer I can only call, for lack of a better name, the traditionalist type. Men like Palestrina and Bach belong in this category.
They both are characteristic of the kind of composer who is born in a particular period of musical history, when a certain musical style is about to reach its fullest development. It is a question at such a time of creating music in a well-known and accepted style and doing it in a way that is better than anyone has done it before you.
The traditionalist type of composer begins with a pattern rather than with a theme. The creative act with Palestrina is not the thematic conception so much as the personal treatment of a well-established pattern. And even Bach, who composed forty-eight of the most various and inspired themes in his Well Tempered Clavichord, knew in advance the general formal mold that they were to fill. It goes without saying that we are not living in a traditionalist period nowadays.
One might add, for the sake of completeness, a fourth type of composer - the pioneer type: men like Gesualdo in the seventeenth century,
Moussorgsky and Berlioz in the nineteenth, Debussy and Edgar Varese in the twentieth. It is difficult to summarize the composing methods of so diversified a group. One can safely say that their approach to composition is the opposite of the traditionalist type.
They clearly oppose conventional solutions of musical problems. In many ways, their attitude is experimental - they seek to add new harmonies, new sonorities, new formal principles. The pioneer type was the characteristic one at the turn of the seventeenth century and also at the beginning of the twentieth century, but it is much less evident today.
不同類型的音樂家
我發(fā)現(xiàn)音樂有三種不同類型的作曲家，他們各自創(chuàng)作的方式有不同。能激發(fā)公眾想象力的是自發(fā)式靈感型即弗朗茲·舒伯特型。當(dāng)然所有的作曲家都需要靈感，但這一類型的更具自發(fā)的靈感，音樂簡(jiǎn)直就是噴涌而出，多得來不及記錄，通過他們多產(chǎn)的作品你幾乎可以一下就認(rèn)出他們。有幾個(gè)月舒伯特幾乎譜成一曲，伍爾夫·雨果也是如此。
從一定意義上說，這類作曲家不是從一個(gè)主題開始而是從一部完整的作品一氣呵成。他們總是擅長(zhǎng)短形式的作品。即興創(chuàng)作一支歌曲比即興創(chuàng)作一部交響曲要簡(jiǎn)單得多。要長(zhǎng)時(shí)間連續(xù)不斷的獲得自發(fā)的靈感不容易，就是舒伯特也是短形式的音樂方面更為成功。自發(fā)式靈感型人只是作曲家的一種，他有他自己的局限。
貝多芬屬于第二類--可以稱之為建設(shè)型。和其他類型相比，這類作曲家更適合我的音樂創(chuàng)作過程理論的例證，因?yàn)閷?duì)這類作曲家來說，他們的確是從音樂主題開始創(chuàng)作的。以貝多芬為例這一點(diǎn)毋庸質(zhì)疑，因?yàn)槲覀冇兴浵乱魳分黝}的筆記本。我們可以從他的筆記本看出他是如何在主題上下功夫的--曲不完美誓不休。從舒伯特的意義上說，貝多芬絕對(duì)不是靈感自發(fā)型的作曲家。他是那類從主題開始、形成初步的構(gòu)思再日復(fù)一日辛勤地創(chuàng)作一部作品的作曲家。從貝多芬開始，許多的作曲家都屬于這第二類。
由于找不到更合適的稱呼，第三類作曲家姑且稱他們?yōu)閭鹘y(tǒng)類。帕勒斯提那的創(chuàng)作活動(dòng)與其說是主題概念不如說是對(duì)既定模式的個(gè)性化處理。即使創(chuàng)作了 48首主題各異充滿靈感的《平均律鋼琴曲集》的*也知道他們將遵循的一般模式。不用說今天我們不是生活在一個(gè)傳統(tǒng)時(shí)期。
為完整起見也許還應(yīng)加上第四種作曲家--先鋒型，諸如17世紀(jì)的杰蘇爾多、19世紀(jì)的穆索爾斯基和柏遼茲，以及20世紀(jì)的德彪西和瓦雷茲。這樣一類作曲家如此多樣化的創(chuàng)作手法難以概括，但可以肯定的一點(diǎn)是他們的作曲方法與傳統(tǒng)型針鋒相對(duì)。
他們鮮明地反對(duì)音樂問題的通行解決辦法。許多方面他們的態(tài)度是試驗(yàn)的--尋求添加新的融合、新的音效、新的創(chuàng)作形式。先鋒型在17世紀(jì)末和20世紀(jì)初期很具代表性，但是如今其特征已不太明顯。