語言學(xué)作為一門獨立的學(xué)科來研究還是人類文化歷史新近發(fā)展的產(chǎn)物。在它剛剛出現(xiàn)時，對于語言學(xué)到底算不算科學(xué)曾經(jīng)有很大的爭論。但是現(xiàn)在這種爭論已經(jīng)漸漸消失了，語言學(xué)在科學(xué)領(lǐng)域已經(jīng)建立了牢固的地位。在中國，語言的學(xué)習(xí)已經(jīng)有很長的歷史了，但是現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)的研究卻還需要經(jīng)歷很長時間才能趕超世界水平。
簡述所學(xué)各章
1、緒論：（linguistics and language）什么是語言學(xué)，什么是語言？
2、音位學(xué)（phonology）：就音位基本概念，音位的區(qū)別特征，音位變體，音位分布、對立，超音段音位等作了介紹。
3、形態(tài)學(xué)（morphology）：研究單詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)以及構(gòu)詞規(guī)則
4、句法學(xué)（syntax）：句法學(xué)是一門關(guān)于自然語言的句子結(jié)構(gòu)的學(xué)問，是普通語言學(xué)的核心內(nèi)容之一。本講座含語言的規(guī)則系統(tǒng)，句子結(jié)構(gòu)，語法關(guān)系，組合規(guī)則與移位規(guī)則和普通語法等六部分，對句法體系，句子語法性和句法心理現(xiàn)實性，句子成分和基本類型，句子的線性與層次性等作了說明。
5、語義學(xué)（semantics）：就語義的定義，研究目標(biāo)，語義理論的形式化和應(yīng)用，語義學(xué)的歷史發(fā)展，詞匯語義學(xué)及句子語義學(xué)展開介紹。
6、語用學(xué)（pragmatics）：就語用學(xué)的起源及定義，語用學(xué)和語義學(xué)的比較，語境的理解，及語用研究的重要原則等展開講解。
7、歷史語言學(xué)（historical linguistics）：語言的變化。研究語言變化的目的和意義、語言變化的本質(zhì)、英語的歷史發(fā)展、語系和語言變化的原因等五部分。
8、社會語言學(xué)（sociolinguistics）：社會語境中的語言。語言變異與語用情景、方言及方言使用的社會功能、雙言與雙語現(xiàn)象、少數(shù)民族方言、社會方言等五部分。
9、心理語言學(xué)（psycholinguistics）：學(xué)習(xí)語言與心腦的關(guān)系。包括語言的生理基礎(chǔ)、語言側(cè)化、語言中樞、失語癥研究、語言習(xí)得的關(guān)鍵期和語言與思維的關(guān)系等六部分。
10、語言習(xí)得（language acquisition）：人類語言能力的獲得機器發(fā)展的過程。
一、緒論
語言學(xué)的定義
語言學(xué)的研究范疇
幾對基本概念
語言的定義
語言的甄別特征
What is linguistics？ 什么是語言學(xué)？
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 語言學(xué)是對語言科學(xué)地進(jìn)行研究的學(xué)科。語言學(xué)所要研究的不是某一種特定的語言，而是人類所有語言的特性。The scope of linguistics 語言學(xué)研究的范疇
Phonetics語音學(xué)\Phonology音系學(xué)\Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)\Syntax句法學(xué)\Semantics語義學(xué)\Pragmatics語用學(xué)\Sociolinguistics社會語言學(xué)\Psycholinguistics心理語言學(xué)\Applied linguistics應(yīng)用語言學(xué)Prescriptive vs. descriptive 規(guī)定性與描述性
Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior.
Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written language
Synchronic vs. diachronic 共時性與歷史性
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study
The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study
In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study
Speech and writing 口頭語與書面語
Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:
（1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution
（2） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing
（3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language
Language and parole 語言與言語
Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community
Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use
Competence and performance 能力與運用
Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication
What is language？ 什么是語言？
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication
Characteristics of language: 語言的特性
Language is a rule-governed system
Language is basically vocal
Language is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）
Language is used for human communication
Design features of language 語言的甄別特征
American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:
1） arbitrariness 武斷性
2） productivity 創(chuàng)造性
3） duality 二重性
4） displacement移位性
5） cultural transmission 文化傳遞性
二、音系學(xué)
語言的聲音媒介
什么是語音學(xué)
發(fā)音器官
音標(biāo)……寬式和嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音法
英語語音的分類
音系學(xué)和語音學(xué)
語音、音位、音位變體
音位對立、互補分部、最小對立
幾條音系規(guī)則
超切分特征
Two major media of communication: speech and writing
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人類語言交際的聲音稱為語音，這些數(shù)目有限的一組語音構(gòu)成了語言的聲音媒介。Phonetics語音學(xué): is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language.
Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 發(fā)音語音學(xué)（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 聽覺語音學(xué)and acoustic phonetics 聲學(xué)語音學(xué)
Organs of speech 發(fā)音器官
The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities:
The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat
The oral cavity口腔——the mouth
The nasal cavity 鼻腔——the nose
Vibration of the vocal cords （聲帶） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 濁音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 輔音。單詞補充：
01） velum: The soft palate. 軟腭
02） uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，懸雍垂懸垂在軟腭中央的小的圓錐狀肉塊
03） larynx: n. 喉
04） vocal cord: 聲帶
05） membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔軟的組織層，覆蓋在表面或分割連接各種區(qū)域、結(jié)構(gòu)或動植物器官
06） the soft palate: 軟腭
07） the hard palate: 硬腭
08） the teeth ridge: 齒齦
09） alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽顎骨處的牙床
10） the teeth: 牙齒
11） the lips: 上下唇
12） blade of tongue: 舌面
13） back of tongue: 舌根
14） pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔
15） nasal cavity: 鼻腔
16） velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as （g） in good and （k） in cup.軟腭音的用舌頭后部掛觸或靠近軟腭清楚地發(fā)音的，如在 good中的（g）以及在 cup中的（k）
17） the tip of the tongue: 舌尖
18） the upper front teeth: 上齒
19） the roof of the mouth: 上顎
20） the lower lip: 下唇International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）
The vowels （monophthongs and diphthongs） 元音（單元音&雙元音）
The constants 輔音
Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. （in dictionaries and teaching textbooks）
用一個符號來表示一個語音的標(biāo)音方式叫做寬式標(biāo)音法，這種音標(biāo)法常見于詞典和教科書。
Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.
但實際上， 同一語音在不通的語音環(huán)境中的發(fā)音不盡相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音發(fā)音就不一樣。
在寬式標(biāo)音的基礎(chǔ)上， 再用變音符號表示同一語音在不同的語音環(huán)境下不同發(fā)音的標(biāo)音法叫做窄式標(biāo)音法。
Classification of English speech sounds
英語語音的分類
The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.
Classification of English constants
英語輔音分類
此主題相關(guān)圖片如下： Classification of English vowels
:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低
:the openness of the mouth,口的張開程度
:the shape of the lips園唇與否
:length of the vowels元音的長度此主題相關(guān)圖片如下： Phonology 音系學(xué)
Phonology and phonetics
音系學(xué)和語音學(xué)
Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.
語音學(xué)研究的是人類所有語言的語音，旨在對語音進(jìn)行描述和分類。
Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
音系學(xué)研究的重點是特定語言的語音體系，語音表達(dá)意義作用。
Phone，phoneme and allophone
語音，音位，音位變體Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.
語音是語音學(xué)研究的單位， 是一個個具體的聲音。
Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.
音位是音系學(xué)研究的單位，是抽象的概念， 每一個音位是一組語音特征的集合體，音位具有區(qū)別意義的作用。
The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
音位變體是一個音位在特定的語音環(huán)境力的具體體現(xiàn)， 同一音位在不同語音環(huán)境里體現(xiàn)為不同的變體，也就是語音。Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
音位對立，互補分布，最小對立對
rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.
可以出現(xiàn)在不同語音組合中的同一為止， 產(chǎn)生意義差別。
/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. [pen] and [ben]
最小對立對指出現(xiàn)在同一位置上的一個音之外其余都相同的兩個語音組合。Some rules in phonology幾條音系規(guī)則
Sequential rules 序列規(guī)則 ：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible.
Assimilation rules 同化規(guī)則
Deletion rule 省略規(guī)則
Sign, design, there is no {g} sound
Signature, designation the {g} is pronounced.
Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal constant
Suprasegmental features—— stress, tone, intonation
超切分特征――重音， 聲調(diào)，語調(diào)
the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features;
超切分特征指切分即單音層面以上的音系特征。
三、 MORPHOLOGY 形態(tài)學(xué) 請結(jié)合《詞匯學(xué)中的構(gòu)詞法》進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)。
語素：語言最小的意義單位
語素的類型
復(fù)合詞的類型
復(fù)合詞的特征Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.
形態(tài)學(xué)研究單詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)以及構(gòu)詞規(guī)則， 有屈折形態(tài)學(xué)和詞匯形態(tài)學(xué)兩大分支。Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.
語素：語言最小的意義單位。Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. （independent）
自由語素可以作為單詞獨立使用。Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.
粘著語素必須和其他語素結(jié)合成單詞
Bound Morpheme includes two types: （1） root （2）Affix（詞綴）
1）Inflectional affixes （屈折詞綴）（inflectional morphemes）:
affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional
2）Derivational affixes（派生詞綴） A） prefix: A prefix comes before words. B）suffix
An adjective suffix（形容詞后綴） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.
free=free root（自由詞根）Morpheme（詞素）
Bound root prefix
bound derivational
affix suffix
inflectionalRoot and stem（詞根和詞干）
1） Root 2） Stem
The differences between root and stem:
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Individualistic Undesirables
Individualist （stem） undesirable （stem）
Individual （stem） desirable （stem）
dividual （stem） desire （root, stem）
divide（root, stem）Affixation詞綴法（Derivation派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.
Prefixation前綴@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.
1）'表示否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.
2）''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.
3）'表示貶義'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.
4）'表示程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.
5）'表示方向、態(tài)度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.
6）locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.
7）'表示時間、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.
8）'表示數(shù)量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.
9）'混雜'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-
Suffixation后綴@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.
1）noun suffixes 2）adjective suffixes 3）Adverb suffixes 4）verb suffixesCompounding復(fù)合法 （also called composition）
Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems
Formation of compounds
Noun + noun（名詞＋名詞） ――― handbook, sunshine
Adjective + noun（形容詞＋名詞）―――highway, deadline
Adjective + noun + -ed（形容詞＋名詞＋ed）―――white-haired, red-eyed
Verb + noun（動詞＋名詞）―――driveway, breakwater（擋水板）
Adverb + noun（副詞＋名詞）―――downtown, overburden
Noun + verb（名詞＋動詞）―――toothpick, snowfall
Verb + adverb（動詞＋副詞）―――follow-up, kick-off
Noun + adjective（名詞＋形容詞）―――world-famous, lifelong
-ing form + noun（ing+名詞）―――baking power, dining-room
other forms（其他）―――go-between, father-in-lawFeatures of compounds復(fù)合詞的特征
1.Orthographically書寫特征
（Compounds are written in three ways: solid（airmail） hyphenated（air-conditioning） open（air force, air raid）
2.Syntactically句法特征（復(fù)合詞的詞性一般取決于復(fù)合詞最后一個成分的詞性）
3.Semantically語義特征（復(fù)合詞的意義具有習(xí)語性質(zhì)，許多復(fù)合詞的意義都不是其構(gòu)成成分意義和總和）
4.Phonetically語音特征（復(fù)合詞的單詞重音落在第一個構(gòu)成成分上）
四、句法學(xué)
句子的構(gòu)成
句子的類型
句子的線性排列與層次結(jié)構(gòu)
詞類
詞組類
短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則
短語結(jié)構(gòu) 規(guī)則的循環(huán)性
X標(biāo)桿理論
名詞詞組移位與WH移位
其他類型的移位
深層結(jié)構(gòu)與表層結(jié)構(gòu)
移動a規(guī)則
普遍語法原則
普遍語法參數(shù)
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.
As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.
句法是一個由一套數(shù)量有限的抽象規(guī)則組成的系統(tǒng)。
Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
句子通常由主語和謂語兩大部分構(gòu)成。 謂語通常由限定動詞或動詞詞組構(gòu)成。
The referring expression is grammatically called subject. 主語是指句子中所被指稱的對象。Types of sentences句子的類型
The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.簡單句含一個主語和一個謂語的獨立句子
The coordinate sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并列句含由連接詞串聯(lián)起來的兩個句子成分
The complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.
The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.復(fù)合句由兩個或兩個以上的子句組成， 其中之一為主要子句， 其余為從屬子句。The liner and hierarchical structure of sentences 句子的線性排列與層次結(jié)構(gòu)
The liner word order of a sentence: when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in sequence.句子的線性排列， 句子無論就其口頭或書面表現(xiàn)形式看， 所含的次都按線性次序排列。（表面上的排列）The hierarchical structure of a sentence：sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase（NP）,or verb phrase （VP）, grouped together.
句子的結(jié)構(gòu)是一種由名詞詞組和動詞詞組等句法成分單位構(gòu)成的層次性結(jié)構(gòu)。 Tree diagrams of sentence structure
S NP VP
V S
NP VP
V NP
John suggested （that）Mary take the linguistics class
The points at which the tree branches at various levels are called branching nodes.（分節(jié)點）Syntactic categories 句法類型
Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to
Lexical categories 詞類
Major Lexical Categories主要詞類
Noun（N）\ Verb（V）\Adjective（Adj）\Adverb（Adv） 名詞、動詞、形容詞、副詞
Minor Lexical Categories
Determiner（Det）\Auxiliary（Aux）\Preposition（Prep）\Pronoun（Pron）\Conjunction（Conj）\Interjection（Int）限定詞、助動詞、介詞、代名詞、連接詞、感嘆詞Phrasal categories詞組類
Noun phrase （NP）\Verb phrase （VP）\Prepositional phrase（PP）\Adjective phrase（AP）
名詞短語、動詞短語、介詞短語、形容詞短語Grammatical relations 語法關(guān)系
Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents called grammatical relations.
語法關(guān)系是指句子中名詞詞組與動詞的關(guān)系， 其中涉及到主語和賓語的結(jié)構(gòu)性和邏輯性。
The structural subject and the structural object結(jié)構(gòu)主語與結(jié)構(gòu)賓語
The logic subject （the doer of the action） and the logical object （the recipient of the action）
邏輯主語（行動的執(zhí)行者）與邏輯賓語（行動的接受者）Combinational rules 組合規(guī)則
Phrase structure rules（rewrite rule）短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則
短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則是一組句法重寫規(guī)則。
NP-Det N （a/the man）
NP——Det Adj N PP S（the tall man with glasses that I met）
The recursiveness of Phrase structure rules 短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則的循環(huán)性
These rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentence with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.根據(jù)短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則， 短語和句子可以無限循環(huán)地組合起來。
X-bar theory X標(biāo)桿理論
（X標(biāo)桿理論是將各種短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則高度抽象地綜合成單一的X標(biāo)桿規(guī)則的理論。）一定要結(jié)合書本！Syntactic movement and movement rules
移位規(guī)則
NP-movement and WH-movement
名詞詞組移位和WH移位
五、語義學(xué)
什么是語義學(xué)
命名論
意念論
語境論
行為主義論
意義和所指
主要的意義關(guān)系
句子間的意義的關(guān)系
成分分析
述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析
semantics語義學(xué)
semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning 對語義的研究
（In our discussion, we will limit ourselves to the study of meaning from a linguistic point of view）本章將只限于討論語言學(xué)家對語義的研究Some views concerning the study of meaning 語義研究的幾種主要理論
The naming theory: the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. 命名論是最原始的語義理論， 該理論把詞看做是該詞所指事務(wù)的名稱或標(biāo)記。 （想一想缺陷在哪里？）
The conceptualist view: that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers；rather , in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through mediation of concepts in the mind.意念論人為詞匯和該詞匯所指的事物之間的關(guān)系不是直接的， 而是間接的， 其中介是存在于人的頭腦的意念,詞匯通過意念來指稱事物， 意念便是詞匯的意義。
Contextualism : is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.
語境論人為語言的意義離不開使用語言的語境， 語義不是抽象的， 它存在于語境之中， 它來自語境取決于語境。
舉例：the seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. （seal:海象）
the seal could not be found. The king became worried. （seal:印章）Behaviorism: behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the "situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer." This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.（語義的行為主義和語義的語境有相似之處， 它也把語義放到語境中去研究， 但它更注重人的心理活動，人為語言的意義在于語言使用者在交際過程中對所聽到話語的反應(yīng)。
lexical meaning 詞匯意義
sense and reference
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.
意義是詞匯內(nèi)在的， 抽象的游離于語境之外的意義
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
所指是詞匯在特定的語境中所指稱的具體事物。major sense relation主要的意義關(guān)系 （請結(jié)合《詞匯學(xué)》學(xué)習(xí)）
Synonymy同義關(guān)系
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
Dialectal synonyms: autumn （BE）, fall （AmE）
Stylistic synonyms: start/begin
Collocational synonyms: accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke……for
Semantically different synonyms: amaze/astound/surprisePolysemy多義關(guān)系
Polysemy: the same one word may have more than one meaning
Homonymy同形異義
When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.同音字 （night/knight）
When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 同形異義字 （n. tear/ v. tear）Hyponymy上下義
Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
Superordinate（上位）：flower
Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily…Antonymy反義
The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.
Gradable antonyms:cool/warm/lukewarm
Complementary antonyms：male/female
Relational opposites: teacher/pupil, doctor/patientSense relations between sentences 句子間的語義關(guān)系
X is synonymous with Y. 同義關(guān)系
Eg：X：He was a bachelor all his life.
Y: He never married all his life.
X is inconsistent with Y. 矛盾關(guān)系
Eg：X：He is married.
Y: He is a bachelor
X entails Y. （Y is an entailment of X） 蘊涵關(guān)系 Y>X
Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, the meaning of X is included in Y.
蘊涵是包含關(guān)系， 如果X繼承Y， 則意味著Y包含X的意義。
Eg：X: He likes swimming.
Y: He likes sports
X presupposes Y. （Y is a prerequisite of X）預(yù)設(shè)關(guān)系
Eg：X: His bike needs repairing.
Y: He has a bike
X is a contradiction
X is semantically anomalous
Analysis of meaning 意義分析
componential analysis——a way to analyze lexical meaning成分分析
Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
成分分析法是以分析詞匯抽象意義的一種方法。它把詞匯分析為一個個具有區(qū)別作用的語義特征，根據(jù)詞匯是否包含這些特征來研究、區(qū)分詞匯意義。
Eg:"man"——+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEpredication analysis ——a way to analyze sentence meaning述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析
A predication consists of argument（s） and predicate.謂述結(jié)構(gòu)由論元與謂詞組成
論元：句子中的出現(xiàn)的擔(dān)任成分意義的名詞。
Two-place predication （containing two arguments）
One-place predication （containing one argument）
No-place predication （containing no argument）
Eg：The man sells ice-cream-two-place predication MAN, ICE-CREAM（SELL）
It is snowing-no-place predication （SNOW） 注:這里的it不能看做是論元。
The tree grows well——one-place predication TREE（GROW）
第六章 語用學(xué)
第一節(jié) 什么是語用學(xué)
（1） 定義
（2） 語用學(xué)和語義學(xué)
（3） 語境
（4） 句子意義和話語意義
第二節(jié) 言語行為理論
第三節(jié) 會話原則
Pragmatics 語用學(xué)
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.
對語用學(xué)可以作多種不同的定義， 但關(guān)鍵是要認(rèn)識到語用學(xué)本質(zhì)上是一種意義研究， 是一種將語言置于使用的語境中去的意義研究。
Pragmatics vs. semantics 語用學(xué)與語義學(xué)
The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
語用學(xué)和語義學(xué)兩者都是對意義的研究，它們根本的區(qū)別在于語義學(xué)研究的語言的抽象意義， 語用學(xué)研究的是交際過程中語言意義的表達(dá)和理解。
Context語境
Context is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer.語境可以理解為交際雙方共有的知識。
Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意義和話語意義
Utterance-meaning is based on sentence-meaning; the former is concrete and context-dependent and the latter is abstract and decontextualized.
句子意義是抽象的， 是句子的語義內(nèi)容；話語意義基于句子意義， 是句子意義在特定語境中的具體化， 體現(xiàn)說話的人意圖和目的。
Speech act theory言語行為理論
According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act,illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.
英國哲學(xué)家奧斯汀提出， 在說話時， 說話人很可能同時實施三種言語行為，即言內(nèi)行為， 言外行為和言后行為。
Eg：You have left the door wide open.
locutionary act: "you", "have", "door", "open"
illocutionary act: asking someone to close the door.
perlocutionary act:refers to the effect of the utterance. Whether got the information and close the door
Classification of illocutionary act by Searle 美國語言學(xué)家舍爾把言外行為分為5類：
Representatives: sating what the speaker believes to be true.
Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something.
Commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future action.
Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.
Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something
Principle of conversation 會話原則
Cooperative principle （CP）:合作原則
The maxim of quality 量準(zhǔn)則
The maxim of quality質(zhì)準(zhǔn)則
The maxim of relation關(guān)聯(lián)準(zhǔn)則
The maxim of manner方式準(zhǔn)則
第七章 歷史語言學(xué)
第一節(jié) 研究語言變化的目的與意義
第二節(jié) 語言變化的本質(zhì)
第三節(jié) 英語的歷史發(fā)展
（1） 英語歷史發(fā)展的主要階段
（2） 英語語言系統(tǒng)的變化
第四節(jié) 語系
（1） 語系的劃分
（2） 印歐語系
第五節(jié) 語言變化的原因
（1） 語音的同化
（2） 規(guī)則的簡化與統(tǒng)一
（3） 內(nèi)部借用
（4） 社會因素
（5） 文化傳播
（6） 兒童語言習(xí)得
Historical linguistics
Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change. （or historical development of language）
歷史語言學(xué)是研究語言變化的一個分支。
The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究語言變化的目的與意義
The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence. Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric developments in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different language.
研究語言變化是對人類本身及其語言能力的再認(rèn)識。 通過對語言變化史的研究， 我們可以對人類語言的形成與發(fā)展規(guī)律、各族語言的親緣關(guān)系、語言發(fā)展和語言所處的社會歷史環(huán)境的關(guān)系有一個深刻認(rèn)識。
The nature of language change 語言變化的本質(zhì)
As a general rule, language change is universal , continuous and , to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.
語言變化是普遍的， 持續(xù)的， 在一定的程度范圍內(nèi)規(guī)則的， 系統(tǒng)的變化。The historical development of English 英語的歷史發(fā)展
Major periods in the history of English 英語歷史發(fā)展的主要階段
Old English古英語 （roughly from 449 to 1100）
Middle English 中古英語（roughly from 1100 to 1500）
Modern English現(xiàn)代英語 （roughly from 1500 to the present）1 Old English Period or The Anglo-Saxon Period （450-1100） （vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000）
2 Middle English Period （1150-1500）
3 Modern English Period （1500-now）: in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lostLinguistic change of English 英語語言系統(tǒng)的變化 （loss， addition， 許多變化都表現(xiàn)為規(guī)則的失去、增加、外借和變異）
Sound change語音系統(tǒng)的變化
Morphological change 形態(tài)系統(tǒng)的變化
Syntactic change句法系統(tǒng)的變化
Lexical change詞匯系統(tǒng)的變化
Semantic change語義系統(tǒng)的變化Language family 語系
Classifying genetically related languages 語系的劃分
There is about 30 language families, 4 language families are considered to be the most important, namely, the Indo-European Family, the Sino-Tibetan Family, the Austronesian Family, and the Afroasiatic Family.
世界上有4千多種語言，分別隸屬印歐、漢藏等30個語系。
The Indo-European language family 印歐語系
It has a membership of about 150 languages, including most European languages and Indian Subcontinental languages. It is the first and most widely investigated language family of the world.
印歐語系鎖骨歷史語言學(xué)家研究最早和最深的一種語系。 印歐語系含大部分歐洲語言和印度次大陸語言在內(nèi)的約150種語言。
The Indo-European Language Family
The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages
The Balto-slavic Group（波羅的-斯拉夫語族）：Latvian,Russian,Bugarian,Polish,Czech etc.
The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗語族）：Sanskrit,Hindi,Urdu,Bengali,Persian etc.
The Armenian Group（亞美尼亞語族）：Armenian.
The Albanian Group（阿爾巴尼亞語族）：Albanian.
The Hellenic Group（古希臘語族）：Greek.
The Italian Group（意大利語族）：
Latin,Romance languages（French,Italian,Spanish, portuguess,Romanian） etc.
The Celtic Group（凱爾特語族）：Gaelic,Welsh,Breton etc.
The Germanic Group（日耳曼語族）：
Englsih,German,Dutch,Scandinavian（Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic） etc
The cause of language change 語言變化的原因
Sound assimilation語音同化
Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds is made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology- the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.
語音同化是指一個音受其毗鄰的音的音響而發(fā)生音變， 使其發(fā)音變得與毗鄰的音接近。
"Engla-land"-"England" "ciese", "cinn" "cild"——cheese, chin ,childRule simplification and regularization 規(guī)則的簡化與統(tǒng)一
It is a type of spontaneous morphological rule change that involves exceptional plural forms of nouns
英語名詞復(fù)數(shù)的形式有規(guī)則形態(tài)變化與不規(guī)則形態(tài)變化兩種， 在英語演化過程中， 由于不規(guī)則形態(tài)趨于規(guī)則化， 所以復(fù)數(shù)形式趨向簡化。Internal borrowing 內(nèi)部借用
Another kind of change that is motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.
引起語言變化的又一原因是旨在減輕記憶復(fù)旦的語言規(guī)則的內(nèi)部借用現(xiàn)象。
Eg: cows as the plural of "cow" instead of the earlier plural "kine"Elaboration規(guī)則的細(xì)化
Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communication clarity or expressiveness.
為了避免出現(xiàn)模棱兩可、含糊不清的詞句， 或為了提高語言表達(dá)上的準(zhǔn)確性往往需要增加一些規(guī)則，致使句法規(guī)則更加細(xì)化。Social triggers社會因素
Linguists have become increasingly aware of sociological triggers for languages changes. Such as : wars, invasion, occupation, colonialization, and language planning and standardization policies lead to vigorous language changes.
Eg: Norman Conquest marked the dawning of the Middle English period.
促使語言變化的原因不僅有語言內(nèi)部的， 更多的是來自語言系統(tǒng)外部的社會環(huán)境的變化， 如：侵略戰(zhàn)爭、殖民化政策、政府推行的語言規(guī)劃政策或標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化運動等。Cultural transmission 文化傳播
One of the most pervasive sources of language change seems to be the continual process of cultural transmission across generations.
Eg: old people "icebox" but younger one "fridge"
語言變化的原因還在于， 層出不窮的新觀念和新事物需要人們用新的詞語去表達(dá)。Children's approximation toward the adult grammar 兒童語言習(xí)得
The way children acquire the language constitutes another basic cause for language change. More importantly , children have a strong desire to simplify and regularize grammatical rules, particularly when they see adults use certain rules optionally.
兒童在習(xí)得母語時接收到了各種語言信息和表達(dá)習(xí)慣， 兒童往往偏向于習(xí)得簡化了的或規(guī)則化的表達(dá)方式， 語言演化也就自然出現(xiàn)了。
簡述所學(xué)各章
1、緒論：（linguistics and language）什么是語言學(xué)，什么是語言？
2、音位學(xué)（phonology）：就音位基本概念，音位的區(qū)別特征，音位變體，音位分布、對立，超音段音位等作了介紹。
3、形態(tài)學(xué)（morphology）：研究單詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)以及構(gòu)詞規(guī)則
4、句法學(xué)（syntax）：句法學(xué)是一門關(guān)于自然語言的句子結(jié)構(gòu)的學(xué)問，是普通語言學(xué)的核心內(nèi)容之一。本講座含語言的規(guī)則系統(tǒng)，句子結(jié)構(gòu)，語法關(guān)系，組合規(guī)則與移位規(guī)則和普通語法等六部分，對句法體系，句子語法性和句法心理現(xiàn)實性，句子成分和基本類型，句子的線性與層次性等作了說明。
5、語義學(xué)（semantics）：就語義的定義，研究目標(biāo)，語義理論的形式化和應(yīng)用，語義學(xué)的歷史發(fā)展，詞匯語義學(xué)及句子語義學(xué)展開介紹。
6、語用學(xué)（pragmatics）：就語用學(xué)的起源及定義，語用學(xué)和語義學(xué)的比較，語境的理解，及語用研究的重要原則等展開講解。
7、歷史語言學(xué)（historical linguistics）：語言的變化。研究語言變化的目的和意義、語言變化的本質(zhì)、英語的歷史發(fā)展、語系和語言變化的原因等五部分。
8、社會語言學(xué)（sociolinguistics）：社會語境中的語言。語言變異與語用情景、方言及方言使用的社會功能、雙言與雙語現(xiàn)象、少數(shù)民族方言、社會方言等五部分。
9、心理語言學(xué)（psycholinguistics）：學(xué)習(xí)語言與心腦的關(guān)系。包括語言的生理基礎(chǔ)、語言側(cè)化、語言中樞、失語癥研究、語言習(xí)得的關(guān)鍵期和語言與思維的關(guān)系等六部分。
10、語言習(xí)得（language acquisition）：人類語言能力的獲得機器發(fā)展的過程。
一、緒論
語言學(xué)的定義
語言學(xué)的研究范疇
幾對基本概念
語言的定義
語言的甄別特征
What is linguistics？ 什么是語言學(xué)？
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 語言學(xué)是對語言科學(xué)地進(jìn)行研究的學(xué)科。語言學(xué)所要研究的不是某一種特定的語言，而是人類所有語言的特性。The scope of linguistics 語言學(xué)研究的范疇
Phonetics語音學(xué)\Phonology音系學(xué)\Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)\Syntax句法學(xué)\Semantics語義學(xué)\Pragmatics語用學(xué)\Sociolinguistics社會語言學(xué)\Psycholinguistics心理語言學(xué)\Applied linguistics應(yīng)用語言學(xué)Prescriptive vs. descriptive 規(guī)定性與描述性
Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior.
Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written language
Synchronic vs. diachronic 共時性與歷史性
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study
The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study
In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study
Speech and writing 口頭語與書面語
Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:
（1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution
（2） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing
（3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language
Language and parole 語言與言語
Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community
Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use
Competence and performance 能力與運用
Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication
What is language？ 什么是語言？
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication
Characteristics of language: 語言的特性
Language is a rule-governed system
Language is basically vocal
Language is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）
Language is used for human communication
Design features of language 語言的甄別特征
American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:
1） arbitrariness 武斷性
2） productivity 創(chuàng)造性
3） duality 二重性
4） displacement移位性
5） cultural transmission 文化傳遞性
二、音系學(xué)
語言的聲音媒介
什么是語音學(xué)
發(fā)音器官
音標(biāo)……寬式和嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音法
英語語音的分類
音系學(xué)和語音學(xué)
語音、音位、音位變體
音位對立、互補分部、最小對立
幾條音系規(guī)則
超切分特征
Two major media of communication: speech and writing
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人類語言交際的聲音稱為語音，這些數(shù)目有限的一組語音構(gòu)成了語言的聲音媒介。Phonetics語音學(xué): is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language.
Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 發(fā)音語音學(xué)（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 聽覺語音學(xué)and acoustic phonetics 聲學(xué)語音學(xué)
Organs of speech 發(fā)音器官
The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities:
The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat
The oral cavity口腔——the mouth
The nasal cavity 鼻腔——the nose
Vibration of the vocal cords （聲帶） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 濁音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 輔音。單詞補充：
01） velum: The soft palate. 軟腭
02） uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，懸雍垂懸垂在軟腭中央的小的圓錐狀肉塊
03） larynx: n. 喉
04） vocal cord: 聲帶
05） membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔軟的組織層，覆蓋在表面或分割連接各種區(qū)域、結(jié)構(gòu)或動植物器官
06） the soft palate: 軟腭
07） the hard palate: 硬腭
08） the teeth ridge: 齒齦
09） alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽顎骨處的牙床
10） the teeth: 牙齒
11） the lips: 上下唇
12） blade of tongue: 舌面
13） back of tongue: 舌根
14） pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔
15） nasal cavity: 鼻腔
16） velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as （g） in good and （k） in cup.軟腭音的用舌頭后部掛觸或靠近軟腭清楚地發(fā)音的，如在 good中的（g）以及在 cup中的（k）
17） the tip of the tongue: 舌尖
18） the upper front teeth: 上齒
19） the roof of the mouth: 上顎
20） the lower lip: 下唇International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）
The vowels （monophthongs and diphthongs） 元音（單元音&雙元音）
The constants 輔音
Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. （in dictionaries and teaching textbooks）
用一個符號來表示一個語音的標(biāo)音方式叫做寬式標(biāo)音法，這種音標(biāo)法常見于詞典和教科書。
Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.
但實際上， 同一語音在不通的語音環(huán)境中的發(fā)音不盡相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音發(fā)音就不一樣。
在寬式標(biāo)音的基礎(chǔ)上， 再用變音符號表示同一語音在不同的語音環(huán)境下不同發(fā)音的標(biāo)音法叫做窄式標(biāo)音法。
Classification of English speech sounds
英語語音的分類
The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.
Classification of English constants
英語輔音分類
此主題相關(guān)圖片如下： Classification of English vowels
:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低
:the openness of the mouth,口的張開程度
:the shape of the lips園唇與否
:length of the vowels元音的長度此主題相關(guān)圖片如下： Phonology 音系學(xué)
Phonology and phonetics
音系學(xué)和語音學(xué)
Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.
語音學(xué)研究的是人類所有語言的語音，旨在對語音進(jìn)行描述和分類。
Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
音系學(xué)研究的重點是特定語言的語音體系，語音表達(dá)意義作用。
Phone，phoneme and allophone
語音，音位，音位變體Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.
語音是語音學(xué)研究的單位， 是一個個具體的聲音。
Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.
音位是音系學(xué)研究的單位，是抽象的概念， 每一個音位是一組語音特征的集合體，音位具有區(qū)別意義的作用。
The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
音位變體是一個音位在特定的語音環(huán)境力的具體體現(xiàn)， 同一音位在不同語音環(huán)境里體現(xiàn)為不同的變體，也就是語音。Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
音位對立，互補分布，最小對立對
rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.
可以出現(xiàn)在不同語音組合中的同一為止， 產(chǎn)生意義差別。
/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. [pen] and [ben]
最小對立對指出現(xiàn)在同一位置上的一個音之外其余都相同的兩個語音組合。Some rules in phonology幾條音系規(guī)則
Sequential rules 序列規(guī)則 ：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible.
Assimilation rules 同化規(guī)則
Deletion rule 省略規(guī)則
Sign, design, there is no {g} sound
Signature, designation the {g} is pronounced.
Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal constant
Suprasegmental features—— stress, tone, intonation
超切分特征――重音， 聲調(diào)，語調(diào)
the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features;
超切分特征指切分即單音層面以上的音系特征。
三、 MORPHOLOGY 形態(tài)學(xué) 請結(jié)合《詞匯學(xué)中的構(gòu)詞法》進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)。
語素：語言最小的意義單位
語素的類型
復(fù)合詞的類型
復(fù)合詞的特征Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.
形態(tài)學(xué)研究單詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)以及構(gòu)詞規(guī)則， 有屈折形態(tài)學(xué)和詞匯形態(tài)學(xué)兩大分支。Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.
語素：語言最小的意義單位。Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. （independent）
自由語素可以作為單詞獨立使用。Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.
粘著語素必須和其他語素結(jié)合成單詞
Bound Morpheme includes two types: （1） root （2）Affix（詞綴）
1）Inflectional affixes （屈折詞綴）（inflectional morphemes）:
affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional
2）Derivational affixes（派生詞綴） A） prefix: A prefix comes before words. B）suffix
An adjective suffix（形容詞后綴） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.
free=free root（自由詞根）Morpheme（詞素）
Bound root prefix
bound derivational
affix suffix
inflectionalRoot and stem（詞根和詞干）
1） Root 2） Stem
The differences between root and stem:
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Individualistic Undesirables
Individualist （stem） undesirable （stem）
Individual （stem） desirable （stem）
dividual （stem） desire （root, stem）
divide（root, stem）Affixation詞綴法（Derivation派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.
Prefixation前綴@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.
1）'表示否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.
2）''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.
3）'表示貶義'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.
4）'表示程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.
5）'表示方向、態(tài)度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.
6）locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.
7）'表示時間、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.
8）'表示數(shù)量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.
9）'混雜'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-
Suffixation后綴@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.
1）noun suffixes 2）adjective suffixes 3）Adverb suffixes 4）verb suffixesCompounding復(fù)合法 （also called composition）
Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems
Formation of compounds
Noun + noun（名詞＋名詞） ――― handbook, sunshine
Adjective + noun（形容詞＋名詞）―――highway, deadline
Adjective + noun + -ed（形容詞＋名詞＋ed）―――white-haired, red-eyed
Verb + noun（動詞＋名詞）―――driveway, breakwater（擋水板）
Adverb + noun（副詞＋名詞）―――downtown, overburden
Noun + verb（名詞＋動詞）―――toothpick, snowfall
Verb + adverb（動詞＋副詞）―――follow-up, kick-off
Noun + adjective（名詞＋形容詞）―――world-famous, lifelong
-ing form + noun（ing+名詞）―――baking power, dining-room
other forms（其他）―――go-between, father-in-lawFeatures of compounds復(fù)合詞的特征
1.Orthographically書寫特征
（Compounds are written in three ways: solid（airmail） hyphenated（air-conditioning） open（air force, air raid）
2.Syntactically句法特征（復(fù)合詞的詞性一般取決于復(fù)合詞最后一個成分的詞性）
3.Semantically語義特征（復(fù)合詞的意義具有習(xí)語性質(zhì)，許多復(fù)合詞的意義都不是其構(gòu)成成分意義和總和）
4.Phonetically語音特征（復(fù)合詞的單詞重音落在第一個構(gòu)成成分上）
四、句法學(xué)
句子的構(gòu)成
句子的類型
句子的線性排列與層次結(jié)構(gòu)
詞類
詞組類
短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則
短語結(jié)構(gòu) 規(guī)則的循環(huán)性
X標(biāo)桿理論
名詞詞組移位與WH移位
其他類型的移位
深層結(jié)構(gòu)與表層結(jié)構(gòu)
移動a規(guī)則
普遍語法原則
普遍語法參數(shù)
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.
As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.
句法是一個由一套數(shù)量有限的抽象規(guī)則組成的系統(tǒng)。
Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
句子通常由主語和謂語兩大部分構(gòu)成。 謂語通常由限定動詞或動詞詞組構(gòu)成。
The referring expression is grammatically called subject. 主語是指句子中所被指稱的對象。Types of sentences句子的類型
The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.簡單句含一個主語和一個謂語的獨立句子
The coordinate sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并列句含由連接詞串聯(lián)起來的兩個句子成分
The complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.
The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.復(fù)合句由兩個或兩個以上的子句組成， 其中之一為主要子句， 其余為從屬子句。The liner and hierarchical structure of sentences 句子的線性排列與層次結(jié)構(gòu)
The liner word order of a sentence: when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in sequence.句子的線性排列， 句子無論就其口頭或書面表現(xiàn)形式看， 所含的次都按線性次序排列。（表面上的排列）The hierarchical structure of a sentence：sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase（NP）,or verb phrase （VP）, grouped together.
句子的結(jié)構(gòu)是一種由名詞詞組和動詞詞組等句法成分單位構(gòu)成的層次性結(jié)構(gòu)。 Tree diagrams of sentence structure
S NP VP
V S
NP VP
V NP
John suggested （that）Mary take the linguistics class
The points at which the tree branches at various levels are called branching nodes.（分節(jié)點）Syntactic categories 句法類型
Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to
Lexical categories 詞類
Major Lexical Categories主要詞類
Noun（N）\ Verb（V）\Adjective（Adj）\Adverb（Adv） 名詞、動詞、形容詞、副詞
Minor Lexical Categories
Determiner（Det）\Auxiliary（Aux）\Preposition（Prep）\Pronoun（Pron）\Conjunction（Conj）\Interjection（Int）限定詞、助動詞、介詞、代名詞、連接詞、感嘆詞Phrasal categories詞組類
Noun phrase （NP）\Verb phrase （VP）\Prepositional phrase（PP）\Adjective phrase（AP）
名詞短語、動詞短語、介詞短語、形容詞短語Grammatical relations 語法關(guān)系
Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents called grammatical relations.
語法關(guān)系是指句子中名詞詞組與動詞的關(guān)系， 其中涉及到主語和賓語的結(jié)構(gòu)性和邏輯性。
The structural subject and the structural object結(jié)構(gòu)主語與結(jié)構(gòu)賓語
The logic subject （the doer of the action） and the logical object （the recipient of the action）
邏輯主語（行動的執(zhí)行者）與邏輯賓語（行動的接受者）Combinational rules 組合規(guī)則
Phrase structure rules（rewrite rule）短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則
短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則是一組句法重寫規(guī)則。
NP-Det N （a/the man）
NP——Det Adj N PP S（the tall man with glasses that I met）
The recursiveness of Phrase structure rules 短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則的循環(huán)性
These rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentence with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.根據(jù)短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則， 短語和句子可以無限循環(huán)地組合起來。
X-bar theory X標(biāo)桿理論
（X標(biāo)桿理論是將各種短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則高度抽象地綜合成單一的X標(biāo)桿規(guī)則的理論。）一定要結(jié)合書本！Syntactic movement and movement rules
移位規(guī)則
NP-movement and WH-movement
名詞詞組移位和WH移位
五、語義學(xué)
什么是語義學(xué)
命名論
意念論
語境論
行為主義論
意義和所指
主要的意義關(guān)系
句子間的意義的關(guān)系
成分分析
述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析
semantics語義學(xué)
semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning 對語義的研究
（In our discussion, we will limit ourselves to the study of meaning from a linguistic point of view）本章將只限于討論語言學(xué)家對語義的研究Some views concerning the study of meaning 語義研究的幾種主要理論
The naming theory: the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. 命名論是最原始的語義理論， 該理論把詞看做是該詞所指事務(wù)的名稱或標(biāo)記。 （想一想缺陷在哪里？）
The conceptualist view: that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers；rather , in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through mediation of concepts in the mind.意念論人為詞匯和該詞匯所指的事物之間的關(guān)系不是直接的， 而是間接的， 其中介是存在于人的頭腦的意念,詞匯通過意念來指稱事物， 意念便是詞匯的意義。
Contextualism : is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.
語境論人為語言的意義離不開使用語言的語境， 語義不是抽象的， 它存在于語境之中， 它來自語境取決于語境。
舉例：the seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. （seal:海象）
the seal could not be found. The king became worried. （seal:印章）Behaviorism: behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the "situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer." This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.（語義的行為主義和語義的語境有相似之處， 它也把語義放到語境中去研究， 但它更注重人的心理活動，人為語言的意義在于語言使用者在交際過程中對所聽到話語的反應(yīng)。
lexical meaning 詞匯意義
sense and reference
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.
意義是詞匯內(nèi)在的， 抽象的游離于語境之外的意義
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
所指是詞匯在特定的語境中所指稱的具體事物。major sense relation主要的意義關(guān)系 （請結(jié)合《詞匯學(xué)》學(xué)習(xí)）
Synonymy同義關(guān)系
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
Dialectal synonyms: autumn （BE）, fall （AmE）
Stylistic synonyms: start/begin
Collocational synonyms: accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke……for
Semantically different synonyms: amaze/astound/surprisePolysemy多義關(guān)系
Polysemy: the same one word may have more than one meaning
Homonymy同形異義
When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.同音字 （night/knight）
When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 同形異義字 （n. tear/ v. tear）Hyponymy上下義
Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
Superordinate（上位）：flower
Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily…Antonymy反義
The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.
Gradable antonyms:cool/warm/lukewarm
Complementary antonyms：male/female
Relational opposites: teacher/pupil, doctor/patientSense relations between sentences 句子間的語義關(guān)系
X is synonymous with Y. 同義關(guān)系
Eg：X：He was a bachelor all his life.
Y: He never married all his life.
X is inconsistent with Y. 矛盾關(guān)系
Eg：X：He is married.
Y: He is a bachelor
X entails Y. （Y is an entailment of X） 蘊涵關(guān)系 Y>X
Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, the meaning of X is included in Y.
蘊涵是包含關(guān)系， 如果X繼承Y， 則意味著Y包含X的意義。
Eg：X: He likes swimming.
Y: He likes sports
X presupposes Y. （Y is a prerequisite of X）預(yù)設(shè)關(guān)系
Eg：X: His bike needs repairing.
Y: He has a bike
X is a contradiction
X is semantically anomalous
Analysis of meaning 意義分析
componential analysis——a way to analyze lexical meaning成分分析
Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
成分分析法是以分析詞匯抽象意義的一種方法。它把詞匯分析為一個個具有區(qū)別作用的語義特征，根據(jù)詞匯是否包含這些特征來研究、區(qū)分詞匯意義。
Eg:"man"——+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEpredication analysis ——a way to analyze sentence meaning述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析
A predication consists of argument（s） and predicate.謂述結(jié)構(gòu)由論元與謂詞組成
論元：句子中的出現(xiàn)的擔(dān)任成分意義的名詞。
Two-place predication （containing two arguments）
One-place predication （containing one argument）
No-place predication （containing no argument）
Eg：The man sells ice-cream-two-place predication MAN, ICE-CREAM（SELL）
It is snowing-no-place predication （SNOW） 注:這里的it不能看做是論元。
The tree grows well——one-place predication TREE（GROW）
第六章 語用學(xué)
第一節(jié) 什么是語用學(xué)
（1） 定義
（2） 語用學(xué)和語義學(xué)
（3） 語境
（4） 句子意義和話語意義
第二節(jié) 言語行為理論
第三節(jié) 會話原則
Pragmatics 語用學(xué)
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.
對語用學(xué)可以作多種不同的定義， 但關(guān)鍵是要認(rèn)識到語用學(xué)本質(zhì)上是一種意義研究， 是一種將語言置于使用的語境中去的意義研究。
Pragmatics vs. semantics 語用學(xué)與語義學(xué)
The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
語用學(xué)和語義學(xué)兩者都是對意義的研究，它們根本的區(qū)別在于語義學(xué)研究的語言的抽象意義， 語用學(xué)研究的是交際過程中語言意義的表達(dá)和理解。
Context語境
Context is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer.語境可以理解為交際雙方共有的知識。
Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意義和話語意義
Utterance-meaning is based on sentence-meaning; the former is concrete and context-dependent and the latter is abstract and decontextualized.
句子意義是抽象的， 是句子的語義內(nèi)容；話語意義基于句子意義， 是句子意義在特定語境中的具體化， 體現(xiàn)說話的人意圖和目的。
Speech act theory言語行為理論
According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act,illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.
英國哲學(xué)家奧斯汀提出， 在說話時， 說話人很可能同時實施三種言語行為，即言內(nèi)行為， 言外行為和言后行為。
Eg：You have left the door wide open.
locutionary act: "you", "have", "door", "open"
illocutionary act: asking someone to close the door.
perlocutionary act:refers to the effect of the utterance. Whether got the information and close the door
Classification of illocutionary act by Searle 美國語言學(xué)家舍爾把言外行為分為5類：
Representatives: sating what the speaker believes to be true.
Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something.
Commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future action.
Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.
Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something
Principle of conversation 會話原則
Cooperative principle （CP）:合作原則
The maxim of quality 量準(zhǔn)則
The maxim of quality質(zhì)準(zhǔn)則
The maxim of relation關(guān)聯(lián)準(zhǔn)則
The maxim of manner方式準(zhǔn)則
第七章 歷史語言學(xué)
第一節(jié) 研究語言變化的目的與意義
第二節(jié) 語言變化的本質(zhì)
第三節(jié) 英語的歷史發(fā)展
（1） 英語歷史發(fā)展的主要階段
（2） 英語語言系統(tǒng)的變化
第四節(jié) 語系
（1） 語系的劃分
（2） 印歐語系
第五節(jié) 語言變化的原因
（1） 語音的同化
（2） 規(guī)則的簡化與統(tǒng)一
（3） 內(nèi)部借用
（4） 社會因素
（5） 文化傳播
（6） 兒童語言習(xí)得
Historical linguistics
Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change. （or historical development of language）
歷史語言學(xué)是研究語言變化的一個分支。
The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究語言變化的目的與意義
The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence. Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric developments in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different language.
研究語言變化是對人類本身及其語言能力的再認(rèn)識。 通過對語言變化史的研究， 我們可以對人類語言的形成與發(fā)展規(guī)律、各族語言的親緣關(guān)系、語言發(fā)展和語言所處的社會歷史環(huán)境的關(guān)系有一個深刻認(rèn)識。
The nature of language change 語言變化的本質(zhì)
As a general rule, language change is universal , continuous and , to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.
語言變化是普遍的， 持續(xù)的， 在一定的程度范圍內(nèi)規(guī)則的， 系統(tǒng)的變化。The historical development of English 英語的歷史發(fā)展
Major periods in the history of English 英語歷史發(fā)展的主要階段
Old English古英語 （roughly from 449 to 1100）
Middle English 中古英語（roughly from 1100 to 1500）
Modern English現(xiàn)代英語 （roughly from 1500 to the present）1 Old English Period or The Anglo-Saxon Period （450-1100） （vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000）
2 Middle English Period （1150-1500）
3 Modern English Period （1500-now）: in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lostLinguistic change of English 英語語言系統(tǒng)的變化 （loss， addition， 許多變化都表現(xiàn)為規(guī)則的失去、增加、外借和變異）
Sound change語音系統(tǒng)的變化
Morphological change 形態(tài)系統(tǒng)的變化
Syntactic change句法系統(tǒng)的變化
Lexical change詞匯系統(tǒng)的變化
Semantic change語義系統(tǒng)的變化Language family 語系
Classifying genetically related languages 語系的劃分
There is about 30 language families, 4 language families are considered to be the most important, namely, the Indo-European Family, the Sino-Tibetan Family, the Austronesian Family, and the Afroasiatic Family.
世界上有4千多種語言，分別隸屬印歐、漢藏等30個語系。
The Indo-European language family 印歐語系
It has a membership of about 150 languages, including most European languages and Indian Subcontinental languages. It is the first and most widely investigated language family of the world.
印歐語系鎖骨歷史語言學(xué)家研究最早和最深的一種語系。 印歐語系含大部分歐洲語言和印度次大陸語言在內(nèi)的約150種語言。
The Indo-European Language Family
The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages
The Balto-slavic Group（波羅的-斯拉夫語族）：Latvian,Russian,Bugarian,Polish,Czech etc.
The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗語族）：Sanskrit,Hindi,Urdu,Bengali,Persian etc.
The Armenian Group（亞美尼亞語族）：Armenian.
The Albanian Group（阿爾巴尼亞語族）：Albanian.
The Hellenic Group（古希臘語族）：Greek.
The Italian Group（意大利語族）：
Latin,Romance languages（French,Italian,Spanish, portuguess,Romanian） etc.
The Celtic Group（凱爾特語族）：Gaelic,Welsh,Breton etc.
The Germanic Group（日耳曼語族）：
Englsih,German,Dutch,Scandinavian（Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic） etc
The cause of language change 語言變化的原因
Sound assimilation語音同化
Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds is made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology- the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.
語音同化是指一個音受其毗鄰的音的音響而發(fā)生音變， 使其發(fā)音變得與毗鄰的音接近。
"Engla-land"-"England" "ciese", "cinn" "cild"——cheese, chin ,childRule simplification and regularization 規(guī)則的簡化與統(tǒng)一
It is a type of spontaneous morphological rule change that involves exceptional plural forms of nouns
英語名詞復(fù)數(shù)的形式有規(guī)則形態(tài)變化與不規(guī)則形態(tài)變化兩種， 在英語演化過程中， 由于不規(guī)則形態(tài)趨于規(guī)則化， 所以復(fù)數(shù)形式趨向簡化。Internal borrowing 內(nèi)部借用
Another kind of change that is motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.
引起語言變化的又一原因是旨在減輕記憶復(fù)旦的語言規(guī)則的內(nèi)部借用現(xiàn)象。
Eg: cows as the plural of "cow" instead of the earlier plural "kine"Elaboration規(guī)則的細(xì)化
Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communication clarity or expressiveness.
為了避免出現(xiàn)模棱兩可、含糊不清的詞句， 或為了提高語言表達(dá)上的準(zhǔn)確性往往需要增加一些規(guī)則，致使句法規(guī)則更加細(xì)化。Social triggers社會因素
Linguists have become increasingly aware of sociological triggers for languages changes. Such as : wars, invasion, occupation, colonialization, and language planning and standardization policies lead to vigorous language changes.
Eg: Norman Conquest marked the dawning of the Middle English period.
促使語言變化的原因不僅有語言內(nèi)部的， 更多的是來自語言系統(tǒng)外部的社會環(huán)境的變化， 如：侵略戰(zhàn)爭、殖民化政策、政府推行的語言規(guī)劃政策或標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化運動等。Cultural transmission 文化傳播
One of the most pervasive sources of language change seems to be the continual process of cultural transmission across generations.
Eg: old people "icebox" but younger one "fridge"
語言變化的原因還在于， 層出不窮的新觀念和新事物需要人們用新的詞語去表達(dá)。Children's approximation toward the adult grammar 兒童語言習(xí)得
The way children acquire the language constitutes another basic cause for language change. More importantly , children have a strong desire to simplify and regularize grammatical rules, particularly when they see adults use certain rules optionally.
兒童在習(xí)得母語時接收到了各種語言信息和表達(dá)習(xí)慣， 兒童往往偏向于習(xí)得簡化了的或規(guī)則化的表達(dá)方式， 語言演化也就自然出現(xiàn)了。